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A    THIBETAN    LAMA,    AT    PEKING. 


CHINA 


ROBERT    K.    DOUGLAS 
Of  the  British  Museum.  Professor  of  Chinese  at  King's  College,  London 


Ch'na  as  a  nation  makes  the  -or hole  -a/or Id  her  debtor ' 


REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


WITH  MAXr  ILLUSTRA  TIONS  AND  AN  INDEX 


akron,  ohio 
The  Saalfield  Publishing  Co 


New  York 


1903 


MP  ANY 

Chicago 


COPYRIGJIT   BY 

D.  LOTHROP  AND  COMPANY 
1885 


COPYRIGHT    1895 

By  the  WERNER  COMPANY 


History  of  China 
.*•    .••  «  ♦  •   t         *     .'       •    < 


7^1 


PREFACE. 

In  the  English  edition  of  the  volume  now 
republished,  the  author  acknowledged  his  in- 
debtedness in  preparing  it  to  Doctor  Legge's 
"  Chinese  Classics,"  Archdeacon  Gray's  work  on 
China,  Doolittle's  "  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese," 
Dennys's  "Chinese  Folklore,"  Mayers's  "Chinese" 
Reader's  Manual,"  Sir  John  Davis's  "  Poetry 
>  of  the  Chinese,"  as  well  as  to  the  important 
J  linguistic,  religious  and  topographical  writings 
of  Doctor  Edkins  of  Peking,  and  to  other 
foreign   and  native  works- 

Among  the  laborers  to  whom  Professor  Douglas 
was  much  indebted,  the  late  Professor  S.  Wells 
^  Williams,  of  Yale  College,  should  be  also  prom- 
S  inently  mentioned.  Probabl}"  his  work  on  the 
«v^  ^Middle  Kingdom  contains  more  information  of 
value  than  any  other  single  volume  in  our 
language,  especially  in  the  revised  form  given 
^^  it  b}'  the  lamented  author  just  at  the  close  of 
his   life.  ' 

In    reprinting    Professor    Douglas's    work,    it 
5 

42S143 


6  Preface. 

"has  been  thought  best  to  supply  an  analytical 
Table  of  Contents  and  an  Index,  conveniences 
often  omitted  in  otherwise  valuable  English  pub- 
lications ;  and  the  opportunity  has  been  embraced 
to  revise  the  text  somewhat  in  such  a  way  as  to 
render  it  more  useful  to  its  new  readers,  though 
no  liberty  has  been  taken  with  the  author's 
statements  of  facts. 

A  Chinese  scholar,  who  combines  a  famili- 
arity with  the  wisdom  of  his  native  land  and 
acquaintance  with  the  civilization  and  intelli- 
gence of  America,  has  read  the  text  and  has 
suggested  a  few  remarks  which  have  taken  the 
form  of  footnotes.  Probably  the  present  is  the 
first  work  on  China  that  has  thus  had  the 
advantage  of  careful  revision  by  a  native  of  the 
Flowery  Land  educated  in  the  civilization  of 
both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  hemispheres. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.  —SKETCH  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHINESE 
EMPIRE. 

Obscurity  of  the  origin  of  the  Chinese,  17.  Culture  of  the  earliest 
Settlers,  19.  Writing,  Arts,  Astronomy,  etc.,  20.  Babylonian 
(Accadian)  Parallelisms,  23.  The  Year,  24.  Mesopotamian 
Culture,  25.  Divisions  of  the  Empire,  26.  The  Term  Shang-te, 
27.  The  great  Flood,  28.  The  China  of  the  Chow  Dynast}-, 
30.  Reign  of  Kang,  31.  Spread  of  Lawlessness,  32.  The  In- 
vention of  Writing  ordered,  36.  War,  37.  Degeneracy,  38. 
Confucius  and  Mencius,  40.  Feudalism  abolished,  42.  The 
Great  Wall,  43.  The  Dynasties,  44.  The  present  Manchoo 
Rulers,  45.  Schaal,  the  Jesuit,  arrives,  46.  Tibet  added  to 
the  Empire,  49.  Americans  come,  49.  Science  enters,  51. 
Second  English  Embassy,  55.  Bad  Condition  of  Affairs,  56. 
Opium  War,  57.  Tai-ping  Rebellion,  59.  England  proclaims 
War,  60.  Chinese  Gordon  appears,  65.  Women  rule,  67. 
Rebellion  in  Yunnan,  70.  A  royal  Maniage,  71.  An  imperial 
Death,    81.     Peace,   86. 

CHAPTER  II.— THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA. 

A  patriarchal  Despotism,  87.  Limit  of  royal  Power,  88.  Viceroys, 
90.  Corrupt  Civil-service,  93.  Ill-gotteirGain,  94.  Light  Taxes, 
96.  A  popular  Prefect,  98.  Imperial  Censors,  99.  Lax  Moral- 
ity in  administering  Justice,  100.  Tortures,  etc,  103.  Horrible 
Executions,  103.  Strangulation,  104.  Lynching,  105.  Loath- 
Bome  Dungeons,  107.    The  Canque,   112. 


8  Contents. 

CHAPTER  III.— MARRIAGE. 

Institution  of  Marriage,  113.  Marriage  by  Capture,  11 -i.  Wedding 
Ceremonies,  116.  Wedding  Cards,  120.  Presents,  122.  Women 
difficult  to  manage,  127.  Concubines,  128.  Deatli  better  than 
Marriage,  129.  Widows,  130.  Suicide  of  Widows,  132.  Cere- 
moniousness  of  the  Chinese,  135. 

CHAPTER  IV.— THE  NURTURE  AND  EDUCATION  OF  THE 
YOUNG. 

Baby's  Advent,  137.  Baby's  Cries,  1-38.  Omras,  139.  Mother's 
Movements,  140.  Father's  Power,  141.  Subjection  of  Children, 
142.  Punishment,  143.  Filial  Piety,  144.  School-Life,  145. 
No  Alphabet  to  learn,  146.  The  four  Books  and  five  Classics, 
147.  Two  respectable  Pursuits,  148.  Fame  vs.  Rank,  149. 
Candidates  for  Office,  150.  Examinations,  152.  Essay-writing, 
153.  Belling  the  Deer,  155.  Successful !  156.  Another  De- 
gree, 157.  Military  Examinations,  161.  Warlike  Backward- 
ness,  163. 

CHAPTER  v.  — FOOD  AND   DRESS. 

Variety  of  Climate,  164.  Chopsticks  and  Slippery  Food,  167.  A 
cottage  Dinner,  168.  A  Bill-of-Fare,  169.  Dogs,  Cats  and 
other  Delicacies,  170.  Courses  of  a  Feast,  171.  Another  Bill- 
of-Fare,  172.  Fishes,  175.  .  Oysters,  178.  Poultry,  179.  No 
Milk,  180.  Clothing,  183.  Buttons  and  Rank,  185.  Modes 
of  Hair-dressing,  188.  Compressed  Feet,  190.  Barbers  and 
Pigtails,  195.  Shaven  Heads,  197.  Whiskers  and  Mustaches, 
199. 

CHAPTER  VI.—  AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture  highly  esteemed,  200.  Agricultural  Boards,  202.  Pro- 
cesses, 203.  Products,  205.  Rice  Fields,  205.  Irrigation,  206. 
Threshing,    209.    Tea-plants,    210.     Cultivation    of    Tea,    213. 


Contents.  9 

Varieties  of  Tea,  215.  Tea-drinking,  216.  Silk-culture,  218. 
The  Silkworms,  219.  Care  of  Them,  220.  Superstitions,  221. 
Weaving   Silk,   222.      Wild   Silkworms,   225.      Insect-wax,    226. 

CHAPTER  Vir.  — MEDICINE. 

Antiquity  of  the  Medical  Art,  229.  Highest  Development,  2-30, 
Empiricism,  231.  No  Medical  Colleges,  232.  Quack  Doctors, 
233.  Remedies,  234.  Fees,  235.  Acupuncture,  236.  Insanity, 
237.    Mercury  early  used,   238. 

CHAPTER  VIII.— MUSIC. 

Antiquity  of  Music,  239.  Pre-Chinese  Stage,  240.  Instruments,. 
241.  Musical  Stones,  243.  Bells,  245.  Gongs,  247.  Stringed 
Instruments  the  Favorites,  248.  Music  and  Politics,  250.  Music 
and   Morals,   253.     The   Imperial   Board  of   Music    254. 

CHAPTER  IX.— ARCHITECTURE. 

No  old  Buildings  or  Ruins,  255.  Tent-like  Structures,  256.  Dreary 
Streets,  257.  Uniform  Houses,  258.  No  Comforts,  262.  Colors 
regulated  by  Law,  263.  Streets  and  Roads,  264.  Shops,  266. 
Foos,  266.  ^  Walls,  271.  Temples,  272.  Buddhist  Temples,  277> 
Padogas,   279.  .  ♦ 

CHAPTER  X.— DRAWING. 

Antiquity  of  the  Art,  280.  Chinese  not  artistic,  283.  Mechanical 
Rules  followed,  284.  Art  Legislation,  288.  Landscape  Draw- 
ing,  289.     Portraits,   289.     A  Tragedy,   290. 

CHAPTER  XI.—  TRAVELLING. 

Slow  and  Sure,  291.  No  Springs  to  the  Carriages,  292.  Mules 
and  Ponies,  293.  Boats,  294.  Junks  that  go  to  Sea,  297. 
Typhoons  sweep  the  Seas,  299.  Living  in  Boats,  300.  Advan- 
tages of  Boats,  302.  "  Travel  by  Wheelbarrow,  304.  System  of 
Highways,   309.    Bridges,   310. 


10  Contents.  • 

CHAPTER  XII.— HONORS. 

Honors  not  Inheritable,  312.  Posthumous  Honors,  313.  Titles,  314. 
Gordon's  Honors,  315.  Yellow  Jackets,  317.  Permission  to  ride 
into  the  Palace,  318.  Women  honored,  319.  Miss  Wang's 
Reward  for  Propriety,   .320.     Spinster's   Honors,   322. 

CHAPTER  XIII.— NAMES. 

Antiquity  of  Surnames,  324.  Intermarriages,  325.  The  twelve  Sing, 
326.  The  Ancestral  Hall,  327.  Professor  of  Ceremonies,  329. 
Personal  Names,  331.  The  Milk  Name,  331.  High-sounding 
Names,   332. 

CHAPTER  XIV.— THE  CHINESE  YEAR. 

Antiquity  (as  usual)  of  the  Months,  333.  Intercalaiy  Month,  335. 
Rejoicings  on  New  Year's  Day,  335.  A  good  Time  to  make 
Matrimonial  Engagements,  337.  Omens,  338.  Symbolism,  340. 
Women  feast,  340.  Feast  of  Lanterns,  341.  Women  out  after 
Dark,  342.  Work  again,  343.  Food  appropriate  for  this 
Period,  344.  Divisions  of  the  Year,  345.  Atmospheric  Changes, 
347.  Spring  "received"  officially,  348.  Imperial  Sod-turning, 
349.  Sacrificial  Plowing,  352.  In  the  Graveyard,  355.  For 
the  Comfort  of  the  Manes,  -356.  Superstitions,  358.  Buddha's 
Birthday,  359.  Dragon-boat  Festival,  360.  Cart  Races,  362. 
Women  Sacrifice,  364.  Ghost-feeding,  365.  Festival  of  the 
Moon,  367.  Imperial  Hunting,  368.  Kite-flying,  371.  Preparing 
the  Ghosts  for  Winter,  372.  Thanksgiving-Day,  377.  Shaving 
heads,  379.  Kitchen-gods  honored,  381.  Sexagenary  Cycles, 
383. 

CHAPTER  XV.— SUPERSTITIONS. 

English  Superstitions,  386.  Coincidences,  387.  Eclipses,  388.  Watch- 
ing the  Planets,  392.  Portents,  393.  Divining  the  Future,  395. 
Fortune-telling,   397.    Physiognomy,   399.    Back    Hair    vs.   Offi- 


Contents.  11 

cial  Advance,  401.     The  Month  and  its  Meanings,  402.     Spirit- 
ualism,  404.    Magic  Pencils,    406.    Clairvoyance,   409. 

CHAPTER  XVI.— FUNERAL  RITES. 

Antiquity  of  Burials,  410.  Immolations,  411.  Trosseau  for  the 
next  World,  412.  Death-bed  Scenes,  413.  Omens,  415.  Death 
Letters,  416.  The  future  Life,  418.  Burial-services,  420.  The 
ancestral  Tablet,  423.  Anniversaries,  425.  Sepulchres,  425. 
Cremation,   427. 

CHAPTER  XVII.— THE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA. 

The  three  Religions,  428.  Shang-te,  430.  Teachings  of  Confucius, 
430.  Fading  Belief  in  a  personal  Deity,  429.  Self-cultivation, 
433.  Heaven,  434.  Taouism,  438.  Rs  origin,  439.  The  Nir- 
vana of  the  Buddhists,  441.  Superstitions,  443.  Monopoly  of 
Taouism,  445.  Buddhism,  446.  Indian  Missionaries,  449.  Relics, 
450.  Philosophical  Ideas,  452.  Pure  Nothingness,  455.  A  ter- 
restrial Paradise  necessary,  459.  Buddhism  disowned,  460. 
Mahommadenism,  463. 

CHAPTER  XVni.— THE   LANGUAGE. 

No  clear  Account  of  the  Origin  of  Language,  464.  The  eight 
Diagrams,  465.  The  Kwei  Writing,  466.  Tradition  concerning 
the  Origin  of  Writing,  467.  Phonetic  Writing,  469.  A  fixed 
System,,  471.  Ignorance  of  Philolog}-,  472.  Suffixes,  475. 
Classification  of  the  Characters,  476.  A  Cumbersome  System, 
478.  Double  Words,  479.  Compound  words,  481.  Probable 
Origin  of  the  Language,  482.  Phonetic  Decay,  484.  Power  of 
Tones,  485.  Absence  of  Inflexion,  488.  Self-depreciation  in 
Conversation,  489.  The  Imperial  we,  491.  Modes  and  Tenses, 
493. 


12  Contents. 

CHAPTER    XIX.— THE   LITERATURE. 

Literary  Activity,  494.  An  unplastic  Language,  495.  Origin  of 
tbe  Literature,  496.  The  most  antique  Book,  497.  Light  on 
the  Aborigines,  499.  Book  of  History,  502.  Science  wanting, 
504.  Work  of  Confucius,  507.  Mencius,  511.  Burning  Librar- 
ies, 612.  Re-creating  the  Literature,  517.  Biography,  530.  Phil- 
osophy, 534.  Astronomy,  535.  Golden  Age  of  Letters.  538. 
Encyclopaedias,  539.  Essay-writing,  545.  Poetry,  547.  Dramatic 
Work,  552.    Theatres,  554.    Novels,  555. 

CHAPTER   XX.— CONTINUATION    OF    HISTORY    OF    CHINESE 
EMPIRE  FROM  1875  TO  1894  INCLUSIVE.* 

Li-Hung-Chang  appointed  Prime  Minister,  558,  The  war  in 
Kashgaria,  559.  Railway  construction, 560.  Capture  of  Kashgar, 
562.  St.  Petersburg  Mission  fails,  563.  Marquis  Tseng's  success, 
56;i.  Retrocession  of  Kuldja,  563.  The  Opium  Trade.  565. 
Revolt  on  Island  of  Hainan,  566.  General  Grant  visits  Pek- 
ing, 566.  Death  of  Empress  Regent  Tsi-An,  566.  Treaty  with 
Cores,  566.  Japanese  resentment,  567.  The  Tonquin  War, 
567.  King  of  Annam  Surrenders  to  France.  569.  An  "  unofficial 
war,"  569.  The  Treaty  of  Tientsin,  571.  English  occupy  Port 
Hamilton,  572.  Prince  Chun  becomes  Dictator,  573.  Educa- 
tional Advancement,  574.  Railway  Progress,  575.  '•  China's 
Sorrow,"  575.  Marriage  of  Emperor,  576.  He  ascends  the  Throne, 
576.  Right  of  Audience,  577.  United  States  Minister  Blair,  578. 
Trade  and  Commerce,  579.  Japan  lands  troops  in  Corea,  581. 
Defeat  of  Corean  army,  581.  China  demands  withdrawal  of 
Japanese  Troops,  581.  Declaration  of  War,  683.  Japanese 
army  lands  in  Manchuria,  583.  Japanese  victories,  584. 
Chinese  Army  and  Navy,  585.  China's  Humiliation,  587. 
Japanese  Atrocities,  587.  Chinese  Envoys  proce;gd  to  Japan, 
588.  China's  Executive  Government,  591.  China  beyond  the 
Wall,  592. 

Indkx '  .       .       .       .        596 


♦Note.— For  the  continuation  of  the  history  of  China,  up  to  the 
close  of  the  year  1894,  see  Chap,  xx,  at  end  of  book. 


ILLUSTEATIONS 


A  Tibetan  Lama  at   Pekixo   . 
Scenery  in  Western  China    . 
Natives  of    Southwestern    China 
Natives  of  Western  China    (Ta-Ii) 
Image  of  Confucius  ..... 
Chinesf-  Water-proof  Clothing 

The  Chinese  Wall 

Types  mk  uncivilized  Women  . 

A  Chinese  Boat-woman  and  Children 

A  Street  in  the  North  of  China 

A  Valley   in  Southwestern   China 

Natives  of  Southwestern  China.     (JJorthern   Yunnan 

A  Mandarin  in  his  Sedan-chair   . 

The  Bastinado 

A  Prisoner  in  the  Canque 

Part  of  a  Chinese  bridal  Procession 

A  Bridal  Procession 

Chinese  Bride  and  Groom 

Household  Ornaments 

A  Schoolgirl 

A  Chinese  Teacher   . 

Chinese  Mope  of  Dressing  the  Hair  . 

Cormorant-fishing  from   a  Raft   . 

Chinese  Head-dress,   Bracelets  and  Ear-ornaments 

A   Hong  Kong  Woman        .     ^  .        .        . 


Frontispiece. 
•21 
27 


33 
35 
39 
42 
47 
53 
63 


83 
97 
101 
109 
117 
122 
123 
136 
146 
159 
165 
173 
181 
136 


14 


Illustrations, 


Types  of  Chinese  Gihls  . 
MoTHEK  ANu  Child    . 
Compressed  Feet 
A  Street  Bakbei:  at   Work 

JIen's  Faces 
A  Street  Barber 
A  Chinese  Farm 
Chinese  Agriculture 
In  a  Chinese  Farm-yard  . 
Roasting  Tea 
In  a  Tea-Shop     . 
Preparing  Tea    . 
The  Tea-plant     . 
Musical  Women  . 
Chinese  Musicians 
A  Chinese  Gateway 
A  Mandarin's  Yamun  official 
A  Chinese  Shop  . 
In  a  Chinese  Garden 
A  War-tower      .        .        . 
A  City  Gate 

A  Chinese  Portrait-painter 
A  Chinese  Artist  at  work 
A  Chinese  Junk 
Chinese  Boats     . 
A  Mandarin's  Junk    . 
Chinese  Coasting-vessels 
«  Passenger-boats  . 
A.  Wheelbarrow  with  Sail 
Sacrificial  Plowing  . 
Kite-klying  .... 
Women  of  Southern  China 


Residence 


Illustrations 


Im  a  Chinese  Cemeteuy   . 

A  BuDPHisT  Abbot     .        . 

A  Chinese  Shrike 

In  a  Temple        .... 

Mahommeuan   Pagodas  at  Ta-li 

A  Chinese  Mahommedan  . 

A  Chinese  Teachek  and  Plpil 

Chinese  Street  Amusements  . 

At  Breakfast       .... 

Crocodile  Point,  Si-kiang  Kiver 

Chinese  Scenery  near  Ha-ngan 

A  Chinese  Gentleman 


16 

425 
431 
445 
451 
457 
461 
475 
511 
515 
521 
531 
541 


CHINA. 


CHAPTER  I. 


SKETCH   OF   THE  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE 
EMPIRE. 


'pHE  origin  of  the  Chi- 
ue'ae  race  is  shrouded 
ill  some  obscurity,  the 
first   records   we  have 
of    it    representing   it 
as     a     band     of     im- 
migrants    settling    in 
the  northeastern  prov- 
inces   of    the   modern 
empire  of   China,  and 
way  amongst  the  aborigines, 
;   Jews  of  old  forced   their 
inaan    against    the   various 
they  found  in  possession  of 
It   is  probable   that  though 
entered    China,  by  the    same 
separated  into  bands  almost 


route 


18  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

on  the  threshold  of  the  empire.  One  body,  those 
who  have  left  us  the  records  of  their  history  in 
the  ancient  Chinese  books,  apparently  followed 
the  course  of  the  Yellow  (Hoang-ho)  River,  and^ 
turning  southward  with  it  from  it:^  northernmost 
bend,  settled  themselves  in  the  fertile  districts 
of  the  provinces  of  Shansi  and  Honan.  As 
we  find  also  that  at  about  the  same  period  a 
large  settlement  was  made  as  far  south  as  Annanu 
of  which  there  is  no  mention  in  the  books  of 
the  northern  Chinese,  we  must  assume  that  an- 
other body  struck  directly  southward  through  the 
southern  provinces  of  China  to  that  country. 

The  question  then  arises,  Where  did  these 
people  come  from?  and  the  answer  which  re- 
cent research  gives  to  this  question  is,  From 
the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  In  the  chapter 
on  the  Chinese  language  we  shall  give  the 
philological  reasons  which  have  led  to  this 
discovery.  Here  we  will  merely  say  that,  in  all 
probability,  the  outbreak  in  Susiana  of,  possibly, 
some  political  disturbance,  which  occurred  about 
the  twenty-fourth  or  twenty-third  centur}'  be- 
fore Christ,  drove  the  Chinese  from  the  land 
of  their  adoption,  and  that  they  wandered 
eastward    until    they   finally    settled    in     China 


Western   Origin  of  the   Chinese.  19 

and  the  countries  south  of  it.  Such  an  emi- 
gration is  by  no  means  unusual  in  Asia.  We 
know  that  the  Ottoman  Turks  originally  had 
their  home  in  Northern  Mongolia,  and  we  have 
a  record  of  the  movement,  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century,  of  a  body  of  six  hundred  thou- 
sand Kalmucks  from  Russia  to  the  confines  of 
China.*  It  would  appear  also  that  the  Chinese 
came  into  China  possessed  of  the  resources  of 
Western  Asian  culture.  They  brought  with 
them  a  knowledge  of  writing  and  astronomy,  as 
well  as  of  the  arts  which  primarily  minister  to 
the  wants  and  comfort  of  mankind.  The  inven- 
tion of  these  civilizing  influences  is  traditionally 
attributed  to  the  Emperor  Hwang-te,  who  is  said 
to  have  reigned  from  B.  c.  2697-2597;  but  the 
name  of  this  sovereign  leads  ns  to  suppose  that 
he  never  sat  on  the  throne  in  China.  One  of 
his  names,  we  are  told,  was  Nai,  anciently  Nak, 
and  in  the  Chinese  paleographical  collection  he 
is  described  by  a  character  composed  of  a  group 
of  phonographs  which  read  Nak-kon-ti.  The 
resemblance  between  this  name  and  that  of 
Nakhunte,  who,  according   to   the   Susian   texts, 

*ln  this  connection  the  reader  will  be  interested  in   De  Quincey's  thrilling 
account  of  the  Flight  of  a  Tartar  Tribe. 


20  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

was  the  chief  of  the  gods,  is  sufficiently  striking, 
and  many  of  the  attributes  ascribed  to  him  are 
such  as  to  phice  liim  on  an  equality  with  tlie 
Susiau  deity.  In  exact  accordance  also  with 
the  system  of  Babylonian  chronologj',  he  estab- 
lished a  cycle  of  twelve  years,  and  fixed  the 
length  of  the  year  at  three  hundred  and 
sixty  days  composed  of  twelve  months,  with 
an  intercalary  month  to  produce  a  correspondence 
with  the  Solar  year.  Further,  we  are  told  that 
he  built  a  Ling  tai,  or  observatoiy  (reminding 
us  of  the  Babylonian  Ziffguratu,  or  house  of  ob- 
servation), "from  which  to  watch  the  movements 
of  the   heavenly  bodies." 

The  primitive  Chinese,  like  the  Babylonians, 
recognized  five  planets  besides  the  sun  and 
moon,  and,  witli  one  exception,  knew  them  b}' 
the  same  names.  Jupiter,  which  among  the 
Chaldeans  was  called  "  The  planet,"  appears 
among  the  Chinese  as  "  The  one."  To  Bab}- 
lonians  and  Chinese  alike,  Mars  was  "  King " 
and  "  Criminal,"  and  Saturn  "  Kinjr "  and 
"Righteousness,"  while  among  the  first  Venus 
was  known  as  the  "  Queen  of  the  defences  of 
heaven,"  and  among  the  latter  as  "  Soldiers 
waiting."     Mercur}'^    was    recognized    by    difi'er- 


Babylonian   Parallelisms.  23 

tnt  names,  from  which  fact  it  may  possibly 
be  inferred  that  it  was  discovered  b}^  both 
peoples  at  a  comparatively  recent  date.*  The 
various  phases  of  these  planets  were  care- 
fully watched,  and  portents  were  derived  from 
«very  real  and  imaginary  change  in  their 
relative  positions  and  colors.  A  comparison  be- 
tween the  astrological  tablets,  translated  by  Pro- 
fessor Sayce  and  the  astrological  chapter  (27th) 
in  the  She  ke,  the  earliest  of  the  Dynastic  His- 
tories, shows  a  remarkable  parallelism,  not  only 
in  the  general  style  of  the  forecasts,  but  in 
particular  portents  which  are  so  contrary  to 
the  prejudices  of  the  Chinese  as  a  nation,  and 
to  the  train  of  thought  of  the  people  that 
they  would  be  at  once  put  down  as  of  foreign 
origin,  even  if  they  were  not  found  in  the 
Babylonian  records.  Such,  for  example,  are  the 
constant  references  to  the  country  of  the  "des- 
ert," to  the  adverse  fortunes  of  the  empire, 
and  the  common  occurrence  of  such  expres- 
sions as  "Soldiers  arise;"  but  the  most  curious 
coincidence  is  the  occurrence,  in  both  chroni- 
cles, of  the  forecast  — "  Gold  is  exchanged." 
Professor     Sayce,    being     uncertain    as     to    the 

*  Sayce's  Astronomy  and  Astrology  of  the  Babylonians. 


24  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

exact  translation,  adds  a  query  to  the  render- 
ing just  given,  and  in  the  Chinese  we  have 
but  tlie  words  Tui^  "  (Coin)  is  exchanged," 
and   Puh  tui,   "(Coin)    is    not   exchanged." 

In  the  reign  of  Chwan  Hn  (2513-2435  B.  c.) 
we  find  according  to  the  Chinese  records,  that 
the  year,  as  among  the  Chaldeans,  began  with 
the  third  month  of  the  Sohir  y^J'r,  and  a  com- 
parison between  the  ancient  names  of  the  months 
given  in  the  Urh  ya,  the  oldest  Chinese  diction- 
ary, with  the  Accadian  equivalents,  shows,  in 
some  instances,  an  exact  identity-.  For  example, 
in  Cliinese  tlie  fifth  month  was  called  HaoUy 
"bright;"  the  ninth  month  Huen,  "dark;" 
the  tenth  month  Yang^  "bright,"  "the  sun," 
"the  day;"  the  eleventh  month  Koo,  "a 
crime,"  "a  failure;"  and  the  twelfth  month 
Tsu,  "heav}'-  dew  or  rain."  Turning  now  to 
the  Accadian,  we  find  that  these  months  were 
respectively  known  as  Dhe  dhegar,  "  fire  mak- 
ing fire;"  Yanyanna,  "thick  clouds;"  Ahha 
suddu,  "  the  cave  of  the  rising  of  the  sun ; "' 
"the  malediction  of  rain;""  and  lastly  "the 
month  of  mists."  These  parallelisms,  together 
with  a  host  of  others  which  might  be  ad- 
duced,  all    point    to    the   existence   of  an    early 


The  F'ung  People.  25 

relationship  between  Chinese  and  Mesopota- 
mian  culture ;  and  seem  to  indicate  that, 
armed  with  the  advantages  thus  possessed,  the 
Chinese  entered  into  the  empire  over  which 
they  were  ultimately  to  spread  themselves.  * 
They  came  among  tribes,  who,  though  some- 
what inferior  to  them  in  general  civilization, 
were  by  no  means  destitute  of  culture.  "We 
learn  from  the  "  Book  of  History "  that  the 
first  Chinese  rulers  employed  ^len  of  the  Le 
tribe  to  calculate  the  equinoxes,  and  a  man 
of  the  Kwei  people  to  determine  the  notes  of 
music.  As  has  been  conjectured  by  M.  Terrien 
de  La  Couperie,  these  Kwei  —  remnants  of 
whom  are  found  to  this  day  in  Northern  Cam- 
bodia—  were  an  Aryan  people.  They  certainly 
possessed  a  literature  which,  we  are  told, 
contained  a  treatise  on  music,  to  which  the 
Kwei  shoo,  "  the  Kwei  Books,"  probably  refer. 
Like  many  other  references  to  the  aboriginal 
tribes  in  the  early  histories,  this  expression, 
Kwei  shoo,  has  been  entirely  misunderstood,  and 
since    the    character    Kwei,   which    in    this    case 


*"Les  Origines  de  I'Histoire  d'apres  la  Bible."  Par  Frangois  Lenormant. 
This  worlt  exists  in  an  American  edition  translated  by  Professor  Francis  BrowTi. 
-New  York  :   Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


26  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

is  to  be  read  only  as  a  phonograph,  means 
Tortoise,  the  tradition  has  arisen  that  the 
Kwei  shoo  was  a  book  written  on  the  shell  of 
a  tortoise.  In  the  same  way  we  are  told  that 
the"  F'uhg  people  came  to  court  and  delighted 
the  Chinese  emperor  by  their  skill  in  dancing 
and  singing,  and,  as  a  token  of  their  homage, 
presented  him  some  of  their  books.  These 
F'ung  people  still  exist  in  Southwestern  China ; 
but,  in  defiance  of  this  fact  and  of  common- 
sense,  it  has  been  universally  accepted  by 
Chinese  writers  that,  because  the  character 
which  is  used  to  represent  the  sound  F'ung 
bears  the  meaning  of  phoenix,  it  was  birds  bear- 
ing that  name  that  visited  the  Chinese  court  and 
displayed    their   acconiplisliments. 

Among  such  people,  and  others  of,  a  lower 
civilization,  such  as  the  Jungs  of  the  west  and 
the  Teks,  the  ancestors  of  the  Tekke  Turco- 
mans, in  the  north,  the  Chinese  succeeded  in 
establishing  themselves.  The  Emperor  Yaou 
(2356-2255  b.  c.)  divided  his  kingdom  into  twelve 
portions,  presided  over  by  as  many  Pastors,  in 
exact  imitation  of  the  duodenarj'  feudal  system 
of  Susa  with  their  twelve  Pastor  Princes  To 
Yaou     succeeded     Shun,    who     carried     on    the 


Who  was  Shang-te  ? 


27 


work  of  his  predecessor  of  consolidating  the 
Chinese  power  with  energy  and  success.  In 
his  reign  the  first  mention  is  made  of  religious 
worship.  We  are  told  that  "he  sacrificed  spe- 
cially, but  with  the  ordinary  forms,  to  Shang-te ; 
sacrificed  with   purity  and   reverence    to  the  six 


NATIVES   OF   SOUTHWESTERN    CHINA. 


Honoured  Ones ;  oifered  appropriate  sacrifices  to 
the  hills  and  rivers,  and  extended  his  worship 
to  the  host  of  spirits."  Much  controversy  has 
arisen  as  to  the  interpretation  of  the  term 
Shang-te.  By  some  he  is  regarded  as  having 
held  the  position  among  the  ancient  Chinese 
that    Jehovah    held    among    the    Jews    of    old; 


28  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Ejnpire. 

and  certainly  many  of  his  attribiites  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Jewish  God.  He  was 
'  believed  to  exercise  a  minute  and  personal 
control  over  tlie  fortunes  of  the  Chinese.  It 
was  by  his  favor  that  kings  rose  to  power ; 
and  when,  in  consequence  of  their  iniquities, 
he  withdrew  his  segis  from  them,  they  fell  to 
make  room  for  others  better  than  they.  He 
was  the  supreme  ruler.  About  the  derivation 
of  the  character  te,  there  has  been  as  much 
difference  of  opinion  as  about  tlie  meaning  of 
Shang-te.  No  satisfactory  Chinese  et3'mology 
has  been  found  for  it,  and  it  is  in  all  prob- 
ability nothing  more  than  the  eight  point 
star  of  the  Accadians,  meaning  "  ruler."  Com- 
bined witli  the  character  Shang,  it  may  be 
translated  supreme  ruler,  but  we  find  it,  like 
the  Accadian  character,  applied  to  temporal  rulers 
among  the  Chinese.  Of  the  six  Honored  Ones 
Chinese  writers  have  not  been  able  to  offer 
any  explanation.  In  the  Susian  texts,  however, 
we  find  that  next  in  rank  to  the  chief  deity 
were   six   gods   of  an    inferior   grade. 

In  Shun's  reign  occurred  the  great  flood 
which  inundated  most  of  the  provinces  of  the 
existing  empire.     The  waters,  we    are    told,  rose 


The  "  Great  Flood."  29 

to  so  great  a  height,  that  the  people  had  to 
betake  themselves  to  the  mountains  to  escape 
death.  The  disaster  arose,  as  many  similar  dis- 
asters of  a  less  magnitude  have  since  arisen,  in 
consequence  of  the  Yellow  River  bursting  its 
bounds.  The  "Great  Yu"  was  appointed  to 
lead  the  waters  back  to  their  channel.  With 
unremitting  energy  he  set  about  his  task,  and 
\n  nine  years  succeeded  in  bringing  the  river 
under  control.  During  this  period  so  absorbed 
was  he  in  his  work  that,  we  are  told,  'lie  took 
heed  neither  of  food  nor  clothing,  and  thrice 
passed  the  door  of  his  house  without  once 
stopping  to  enter.  At  the  completion  of  his 
labors,  he  divided  the  empire  into  nine  instead 
of  twelve  provinces ;  and  tradition  represents 
him  as  having  engraved  a  record  of  his  toils 
on  a  stone  tablet  on  Mount  Heng,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hoopih.  As  a  reward  for  the  ser- 
vices he  thus  rendered  to  the  empire,  he  was 
invested  with  the  principality  of  Hea,  and  after 
having  served  as  prime  minister  to  Shun  for 
some  years,  he  succeeded  that  sovereign  on  his 
death,    in   2208   B.  c. 

With    Yu    began    the   dynasty   of   Hea,  which 
gave  place  in  1766  b.  c,  to  the  Shang  Dynasty. 


30  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

The  last  sovereign  of  the  Hea  line,  Kieh  kwei, 
is  said  to  have  been  a  monster  of  iniquity, 
and  to  have  suffered  the  just  punishment  for 
his  crimes  at  tlie  hands  of  T'ang,  the  prince 
of  the  State  of  Shang,  who  took  his  throne 
from  him.  In  like  manner*,  six  hundred  and 
forty  years  later.  Woo  Wang,  the  Prince  of 
Chow,  overthrew  Chow  Sin,  the  last  of  the 
Shang  Dynasty,  and  establislied  himself  as  the 
chief  of  the  sovereign  state  of  the  empire. 
By  "  empire "  it  must  not  be  supposed  tliat 
the  empire,  as  it  exists  at  present,  is  meant. 
The  China  of  the  Chow  Dynasty  lay  between 
the  33d  and  38th  parallels  of  latitude,  and 
the  106th  "and  119th  of  longitude  only,  and 
extended  over  no  more  than  portions  of  the 
provinces  of  Pih  chih-li,  Shanse,  Sheiise,  Honan, 
Keang-se,  and  Sliang-tung.  This  territory  was 
re-arranged  by  Woo  Wang  into  the  nine  prin- 
cipalities established  by  Yu,  and  in  accordance 
with  his  right  as  sovereign,  he  appointed  over 
each  a  member  of  his  own  family  or  following, 
with  the  exception  of  one,  the  State  of  Sung, 
where  a  youthful  scion  of  the  Shang  Dynasty 
was  allowed  to  occupy  the  throne.  Woo  is 
held    up    in    Chinese    history    as    one    of    the 


Woo,  the  Model  Monarch.  31 

model  monarchs  of  antiquity.  He  insisted,  we 
are  told,  with  great  earnestness  on  the  import- 
ance of  having  the  people  taught  thoroughly 
the  duties  of  the  five  relations  of  society,  viz., 
those  of  (1)  ministers  to  their  sovereign ;  (2) 
children  to  their  parents ;  (3)  husband  to  wife ; 
(4)  brother  to  brother;  (5)  and  friend  to  friend: 
I  of  their  being  well  fed,  and  of  the  proper 
observance  of  funeral  ceremonies  and  sacrifices. 
In  his  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  em- 
pire he  was  ably  seconded  by  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Chow,  who  on  the  death  of  Woo 
became  regent  during  the  minority  of  the  im- 
perial  successor,    Ching    (b.  c.   1115). 

Under  the  next  ruler,  K'ang  (b.  c.  1078-1053), 
the  empire  was  consolidated,  and  the  feudal 
princes  one  and  all  acknowledged  their  allegi- 
ance to  the  ruling  house  of  Chow.  Under 
succeeding  sovereigns  jealousies  and  strifes  broke 
out  among  them,  and  their  loyalty  to  the  liege 
lord  fluctuated  with  the  pow^  he  exercised. 
From  all  accounts  there  speedily  occurred  a 
marked  degeneracy  in  the  characters  of  the 
Chow  kings.  History  tells  us  little  about  them, 
and   that   little  is   generally  not  to  their  credit. 

Among    the   most    conspicuous    of    the    early 


82  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

kings  was  Muh  (1001-947),  who  lias  rendered 
himself  notorious  for  having  promulgated  a 
penal  code,  under  which  the  redemption  of 
punishments  was  made  permissable  by  the  pa}-- 
ment  of  fines.  The  charge  brought  against  him 
by  historians,  that  tliis  enactment  first  opened 
the  door  to  the  system  of  bribery  and  corrup- 
tion which  has  since  produced  great  evils  in 
China,  may  possibly  be  well  founded ;  but 
however  this  may  be,  it,  at  the  time,  only 
added  one  more  source  of  harm  to  the  grow- 
ing  disorder  of  the    State. 

Already  a  spirit  of  lawlessness  was  spreading 
far  and  wide  among  the  princes  and  nobles, 
and  wars  and  rumors  of  wars  were  creating 
misery  and  unrest  throughout  the  country. 
Notwithstanding  this,  that  literary  instinct,  which 
has  been  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  Chi- 
nese throughout  their  long  history,  continued 
as  active  as  ever.  At  stated  intervals,  officials, 
we  are  told,  ^ere  sent  in  "light  carriages" 
into  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  collect  words 
from  the  changing  dialects  of  each  district; 
and  at  the  time  of  the  royal  progresses  the 
official  music-masters  and  historiographers  of 
each    principality    pret^ented    to    the    officials   of 


She   Chow's  System  of  Writing. 


«5 


the   sovereign   state   appointed    for    the    purpose 
collections  of  the  odes  and  songs  of  each  local- 


IMAGE   OF    CONFUCILS. 


ity,   in   order,    we   are    told,    that    the    character 
of  the    rule    exercised '  by    their   several    princes 


36  Sketch  of  the  Hutory  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

should  be  judged  by  the  tone  of  the  poetical 
and  musical  productions  of  tlieir  subjects.  Tlie 
odes  and  songs  thus  collected  were  carefully 
preserved  in  the  royal  archives,  and  it  was 
from  these  materials  that,  as  is  commonly  be- 
lieved, Confucius  compiled  the  celebrated  She 
King^  or  Book  of  Odes,  of  which  we  shall 
speak    hereafter. 

It  is  obvious  that  at  the  period  of  which 
we  have  been  writing,  the  great  variety  of 
dialects  existing,  both  in  the  states  and  among 
the  feudatory  tribes  outside  the  frontiers,  was 
giving  rise  to  serious  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  administering  the  kingdom,  and  was  foster- 
ing a  tendency  to  separation  among  the  vari- 
ous peoples.  In  addition  to  this,  the  ancient 
characters  of  the  language  had,  for  reasons 
which  will  be  hereafter  explained,  become  to 
a  great  extent  unintelligible.  To  correct  these 
evils  King  Seuen  (827-781)  directed  a  man 
famous  in  Chinese  history,  She  Chow  by  name, 
to  invent  a  mode  of  writing  known  as  Ta 
chuen,  or  the  Great  Seal  characters,  in  con- 
formity with  a  system  of  a  certain  number  of 
strokes,  in  order  to  establish  a  recognized 
centre    of     literary    unity    in     the     use    of     the 


A  Degenerate  Age.  87 

written  characters.  Such  an  artificial  system 
could  only  be  made  to  serve  the  object  pro- 
posed under  the  rule  of  a  succession  of  su- 
premely powerful  sovereigns,  and  as  such  were 
denied  to  Cliina  at  that  period  it  failed  en- 
tirely. 

Far  from  keeping  up  even  the  semblance  of 
the  authority  exercised  by  the  earlier  Chow 
sovereigns,  the  successors  of  King  Seuen  failed 
to  maintain  any  order  among  the  subordinate 
princes.  The  hand  of  every  man  was  against 
his  neighbor,  and  a  constant  state  of  interne- 
cine war  succeeded  the  peace  and  prosperity 
which  had  existed  under  the  rule  of  Woo 
Wang.  In  the  social  relations  was  reflected 
the  disorder  into  which  the  political  world 
had  fallen.  Filial  piety  had  almost  ceased  to 
exist,  and  great  laxity  in  the  marriage  rela- 
tions gave  rise  to  deeds  of  reckless  licentious- 
ness and  atrocious  violence.  The  example  set 
by  the  princes  of  taking  with  their  brides 
eight  other  ladies  at  once  was-  followed  with- 
out scruple  in  that  degenerate  age  ;  and  chiefs, 
bent  on  the  prosecution  of  their  own  ambitious 
schemes,  trod  under  foot  the  rights  of  the 
people,   and   hesitated    not   to   use  up   the   lives 

428143 


38  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

and  property  of  their  subjects  in  pursuiince  of 
their  ends.  "A  host  marches,"  sa3s  Mencius, 
speaking  of  this  period,  "  and  stores  of  pro- 
visions are  consumed.  The  hungry  are  de- 
prived of  their  food,  and  there  is  no  rest  for 
those  who  are  called  to  toil.  Maledictions  are 
uttered  by  one  to  another  with  eyes  askance, 
and  the  people  proceed  to  the  commission  of 
wickedness.  Then  the  royal  ordinances  are 
violated,  and  the  people  are  oppressed,  and 
the  supplies  of  food  and  drink  flow  away  like 
water.  The  rulers  yield  themselves  to  the  cur- 
rent ;  or  the}'^  urge  their  way  against  it ;  they 
are  wild;  the}'  are  lost  .  .  .  The  crime  of 
him  who  connives  at  and  aids  the  wickedness 
of  his  ruler  is  small,  but  the  crime  of  him  who 
anticipates  and  excites  that  wickedness  is  great. 
The  great  officers  of  the  present  daj'  are  all 
guilty  of  this  latter  crime,  and  I  say  that 
they  are  sinners  against  the  princes  .  .  . 
Sage  kings  do  not  arise,  and  the  princes  of  the 
states  give  the  reins  to  their  lusts  ...  In 
their  stalls  there  are  fat  beasts,  and  in  their 
stables  there  are  fat  horses,  but  their  people 
have  the  look  of  hunger,  and  in  the  fields 
there    are     those    who     have    died    of    famine. 


Confucius  makes  a  Remark. 


3& 


This  is  leading  on  beasts  to  devour  men."  A 
story,  illustrative  of  the  uncared-for  state  of  the 
country  and  tlie  oppression  under  which  the 
people  groaned,  is  told  of  Confucius.     It  chanced 


CHINESE    WATEK-VROOF    CLOTHING. 


that  on  one  occasion,  as  the  Sage  was  journey- 
ing from  the  state  of  Loo  to  that  of  Ts'e,  he 
saw  a  woman  weeping  by  a  tomb  at  the  road- 
side. Having  compassion  on  her,  he  sent  his 
disciple,  Tsze-loo,  to   ask    lier   the    cause   of  her 


40  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

grief.  '*  You  weep,"  said  Tsze-loo,  "  as  if  you 
had  experienced  sorrow  upon  sorrow."  "  I 
have,"  said  the  woman  ;  "  my  father-in-law  was 
killed  here  by  a  tiger,  and  my  husband  also; 
and  now  my  son  has  met  the  same  fate." 
''  Why  then  do  you  not  remove  from  this 
place?"  asked  Confucius.  "Because  here  there 
is  no  oppressive  government,"  answered  the 
woman.  Turning  to  his  disciples,  Confucius  re- 
marked, "  My  children,  remember  this,  oppres- 
sive   government   is   fiercer   than   a   tiger." 

In  their  campaign  against  the  prevailing  law- 
lessness and  violence  neither  Confucius  (550- 
478  B.  c.)  nor  Mencius  (371-288  b.  c.)  were 
able  to  make  any  headway.  Their  preachings 
fell  on  deaf  ears,  and  their  peaceful  admoni- 
tions were  passed  unheeded  by  men  who  held 
their  fiefs  b}'  the  strength  of  their  right  arms, 
and  administered  the  affairs  of  their  principali- 
ties surrounded  by  the  din  of-  war.  The  main 
articles  of  Confucius's  political  creed  was  the 
primary  importance  of  strengthening  and  reha- 
bilitating the  kingdom  of  Cliow  in  its  suprem- 
acy over  the  surrounding  states ;  but  the 
incompetency  of  its  successive  rulers  levelled 
with   the    ground    this   castle    in    the   air    which 


Feudalism  Abolished.  ,  41 

he  persisted  in  erecting,  and  he  had  scarcely 
passed  away  before  it  became  evident  that  the 
sovereign  sceptre  of  Chow  would  soon  pass 
with  the  power,  which  was  rapidly  waning,  to 
one  of  its  more  powerful  vassals.  As  time  went 
on  and  the  disorder  increased,  supernatural 
signs  added  their  testimony  to  the  impending 
crisis.  The  brazen  vessels  upon  which  Yu  had 
engraved  the  nine  divisions  of  the  empire  were 
observed  to  shake  and  totter  as  though  fore- 
shadowing the  approaching  change  in  the  politi- 
cal position.  Meanwhile  Ts'in  on  the  northwest, 
Ts'oo  on  the  south,  and  Tsin  on  the  north,  hav- 
ing vanquished  all  the  other  states,  engaged  in 
tiie  final  struggle  for  the  mastery  over  the 
confederate  principalities.  The  ultimate  victory 
rested  with  the  state  of  Ts'in,  and  in  255 
B.  c,  Chaou-seang  Wang  became  the  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  the  confederate  principalities. 
He  reigned  only  four  years ;  at  the  end  of 
which  time  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Heaou-wan  Wang,  who  died  almost  immediately 
on  ascending  the  throne.  To  him  succeeded 
Chwang-seang  Wang,  who  was  followed  in  246 
B.  c.  by  Che  Hwang-te,  who  having  subdued  all 
the   states   became  the  Emperor  of  China.     The 


42  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 


abolition  of  feudalism,  which  was  the  first  act  of 
-Che  Hwang-te,  raised  much  discontent  among  those 
to  whom  the  feudal  system  had  brought  power  and 
emoluments,  and  the  countenance  which  had  been 
given  to  the  system  by  Confucius  and  Mencius 
made  it  desirable  —  so  thought  the  emperor  —  to 


THE    CHINESE   WALL. 


demolish  once  for  all  their  testimony  in  favor  of 
that  condition  of  afifairs,  which  he  had  decreed 
should  be  among  the  things  of  the  past.  With  this 
object  he  ordered  that  the  whole  existing  liter- 
ature, with  the  exception  of  books  on  medicine, 


The  Great   Wall  built.  43 

agriculture,  and  diviuation  sliould  be  burned. 
The  decree  was  obeyed  as  faithfully  as  was  pos- 
sible in  the  case  of  so  sweeping  an  ordinance, 
and  for  many  years  a  night  of  ignorance  rested 
on  the  country.  The  construction  of  one  gigan- 
tic work  —  the  Great  Wall  of  China* — has 
made  the  name  of  this  monarch  as  famous  as 
the  destruction  of  the  books  has  made  it  in- 
famous. Finding  the  Heung-nu  Tartars  were 
making  dangerous  inroads  into  the  empire,  he 
determined  with  characteristic  thoroughness  to 
build  a  huge  barrier  which  sliould  protect  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  empire  through  all 
time.  In  214  B.  c.  the  work  was  begun  under 
his  personal  supervision,  and  though  every  en- 
deavor was  made  to  hasten  its  completion  he 
died  (209)  leaving  it  unfinished.  His  death 
was  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt  among  the 
oppressed  and  down-trodden  populace,  who,  how- 
ever, after  some  years  of  disorder  were  brought 
under  the  rule  of  a  successful  leader,  who  adopted 
the  title  of  Kaou-te,  and  named  his  dynast}'' 
that   of  Han    (206).  / 

*The  Great  Wall  is  the  most  gigantic  work  of  defence  ever  erected  by 
man.  At  some  points,  it  is  a  simple  rampart,  but  in  others  it  has  a  granite 
foundation.  Its  height  is  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feetj  and  its  breadth  so  great  that 
six  horsemen  can  ride  on  it  abreast.     It  is  some  fifteen  hundred  miles  long. 


44  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

From  that  day  to  this,  with  occasional  in- 
terregnums, the  empire  has  been  ruled  on  the 
lines  laid  down  by  Che  Hwang-te.  Dynasty 
has  succeeded  dynasty,  but  the  political  tradi- 
tion has  remained  unchanged,  and  though  Mon- 
gols and  Manchoos  have  at  different  times 
wrested  the  throne  from  its  legitimate  lieirs, 
they  have  been  engulfed  in  the  homogeneous 
mass  inhabiting  the  empire,  and  instead  of  im- 
pressing their  seal  on  the  country  have  become 
but  the  reflection  of  the  vanquished.  The 
dynasties  from  the  beginning  of  the  earlier 
Han,  founded,  as  stated  above,  by  Kaou-te,  are 
as   follows : 


The  earlier  Han  Dynasty 


The  late  Han 
The  Wei  * 
This  western  Tsin 
The  eastern  Tsin 
The  Sung 
The  Ts'e 
The  Leang^ 
The  Ch'in 


B.  C. 

A.  D 

206 

— 

25 

A.  D. 

■ITi 

— 

220 

220 

— 

280 

265 

— 

317 

317 

— 

420 

420 

— 

479 

479 

— 

502 

502 

— 

557 

557 

— 

SSO' 

*  Simultaneously  with  this  dynasty  there  existed  that  of  the  Minor  Han  in  Sze- 
chuen  in  220^263,  and  that  of  Wu  222-277. 


The  Dynasties. 


45 


Simultaneously  with  these  — 


The  northern  Wei  Dynasty       . 

386 

— 

534 

The  western  Wei 

i( 

535 

— 

557 

The  eastern  Wei 

<; 

534 

— 

550 

The  northern  Ts'e 

<( 

550 

— 

577 

The  northern  Chow 

(( 

557 

— 

589 

The  Suy 

(( 

589 

— 

618 

The  T'ang 

(( 

618 

— 

907 

The  later  Leang 

u 

907 

— 

923 

The  later  T'ang 

^^ 

923 

— 

936 

The  later  Tsin 

(( 

936 

— 

947 

The  later  Han 

<( 

947 

— 

951 

The  later  Chow 

(« 

951 

— 

960 

The  Sung 

<( 

960 

— 

1127 

The  Southern  Sung 

(( 

1127 

— 

1280 

The  Yuen  (Tartar) 

<( 

1280 

— 

1368 

The  Ming 

(( 

1368 

— 

1644 

The  Tae  Ts'ing 

(( 

1644 

— 

Simultaneously  with  some  of  these  — 

The  Leaou  Dynasty 

907 

— 

1125 

.  The  western  Leaou 

Dynasty     . 

1125 

— 

1168 

The  Kin 

(( 

, 

1115 

— 

1280 

Tlie  present  Manchoo  rulers  of  China  are  de- 
scendants of  the  Kin  Tartars,  and  had  their 
original  home  in  the  valley  of  the  Hurka,  a 
river  which  flows  into  the  Sungari  in  about 
46°  20'  North  latitude  and  129°  50'  East  longi- 
tude. Under  a  succession  of  able  leaders  the 
tribe   gained   power   and  territory,   and   as   time 


46  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Urnpire. 

went  on  even  reached  the  point  of  carrj'ing  on 
a  not  altogether  unsuccessful  guerilla  warfare 
with  the  Ming  rulers  of  China.  In  an  evil 
moment,  being  hardly  pressed  by  rebels  in  the 
south,  the  Chinese  patched  up  a  peace  witli 
the  Manchoos,  and  went  so  far  as  to  invite 
their  assistance  against  the  southern  rebels. 
With  alacrity  the  Manchoos  responded  to  the 
call,  and  vanquished  the  common  enemy.  But 
when  requested  to  withdraw  again  across  the 
frontier  they  refused,  and  ended  by  placing 
the  ninth  son  of  their  sovereign,  Teen-ming, 
on  the  throne  of  Peking.  The  dynast}'  thus 
founded  was  styled  the  Ts'ing,  or  "  Pure " 
dynasty,  and  the  title  adopted  by  the  first 
emperor  of  the  line  was  Shun-che.  It  was 
during  the  reign  of  this  sovereign  that  Adam 
Schaal,  a  German  Jesuit,  took  up  his  residence 
at  Peking,  and  that  the  first  Russian  Embassy 
(1656)  visited  the  capital;  but  in  those  days 
the  Chinese  had  not  learned  to  tolerate  the 
idea  that  a  foreigner  should  enter  the  presence 
of  the  Son  of  Heaven  unless  he  were  willing 
to  perform  the  prostration  known  as  the  Ko- 
t'ow ;  and  the  Russians,  not  being  inclined  to 
humor  such  presumptuous  folly,  as  they  deemed 


TYPES  OF    UNCIVILIZED    WOMEX. 


47 


Shun-che  a   Quest  in  Heaven.  49 

it,    left    the    capital     without    opening    negotia- 
tions.* 

In  1661  the  Emperor  Sliun-che  became  a 
"guest  in  heaven,"  or  in  other  words,  died, 
and  K'ang-he,  his  son,  reigned  in  his  stead. 
This  sovereign  is  renowned  in  modern  Chinese 
history  as  a  model  ruler,  a  skilful  general,  and 
an  able  author.  During  his  reign,  Tibet  was 
added  to  the  empire,  and  the  Eluths  were  suc- 
cessfully subdued.  But  it  is  as  a  just  and 
considerate  ruler  that  he  is  best  remembered 
among  the  people.  Among  the  most  cherished 
monuments  of  his  wisdom  are  the  following 
"Sixteen  Sacred  Maxims,"  which  are  tanght 
in  every  school  throughout  the  empire,  and 
which  every  candidate  at  the  competitive  ex- 
aminations is  expected  to  know  by  heart,  to- 
gether with  the  commentary  thereon,  by  the 
imperial    author's   son   and   successor: 

1.  Esteem  most  highly  filial  piety  and  brotlierly  submission, 
in  order  to  give  due  prominence  to  the  social  relations. 

2.  Behave  with  generosity  to  the  branches  of  your  kindred, 
in  order  to  illustrate  harmony  and  benignity. 

♦The  Portuguese  visited  China  in  1517,  but  did  not  obtain  a  footing  until  1537, 
since  which  time  Macao  has  be^n  in  their  power.  The  British  made  a  visit  to 
the  country  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  but  it  was  not  until  1727  that  Canton  was 
open  to  their  trade.  The  first  American  consul  was  allowed  to  reside  at  Canton 
in  i8o2.  A 


60   Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

3.  Cultivate  peace  and  concord  in  your  neighborliood,  in 
order  to  prevent  quarrels  and  litigation. 

4.  Give  importance  to  husbandry  and  to  the  culture  of  the 
mulberry-tree,  in  order  to  ensure  a  sufficiency  of  clothing  and 
food. 

5.  Show  that  you  prize  moderation  and  economy,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  lavish  waste  of  your  means. 

6.  Make  much  of  the  colleges  and  seminaries,  in  order  tO 
make  correct  the  practice  of  the  scholars. 

7.  Discountenance  and  banish  strange  doctrines,  in  order  to 
exalt  the  orthodox  religion. 

8.  Describe  and  explain  the  laws,  in  order  to  warn  the  igno- 
rant and  obstinate. 

9.  Exhibit  clearly  propriety  and  yielding  courtesy,  in  order 
that  manners  and  customes  may  be  perfected. 

10.  Labor  diligently  at  your  proper  callings,  in  order  to  give 
settlement  to  the  aims  of  the  people. 

11.  Instruct  your  sons  and  younger  brothers  in  order  to 
prevent  their  doing  what  is  wrong. 

12.  Put  a  stop  to  false  accusations,  in  order  to  protect  the 
honest  and  the  good.  , 

13.  Beware  lest  you  shelter  deserters  and  escaped  criminals, 
in  order  that  you  may  avoid  being  involved  in  their  punishments. 

14.  Pay  your  taxes  promptly  and  fully,  in  order  to  avoid 
urgent  demands  for  your  quota. 

1.5.  Combine  in  hundreds  and  tithings,  in  order  to  put  an 
end  to  thefts  and  robbery. 

16.  Study  to  remove  resentments  and  angry  feelings,  in 
order  to  show  the  importance  due  to  the  person  and  life. 

The   support   and   patronage  given   to  science 
and  literature  by  K'ang-he  marked  the  beginning- 


A  new  Intellectual  Era.  51 

of  a  new  era  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
people.  Under  the  'guidance  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries at  Peking  he  studied,  and  lent  his 
countenance  to  the  various  European  sciences, 
more  especially  astronomy.  To  the  cause  of 
the  native  literature  he  devoted  years  of  labor 
and  vast  sums  of  money.  By  his  appointment 
a  commission  of  scholars  compiled  a  diction- 
ar}-  of  the  language,  which  is  the  best  work 
of  the  kind,  and  is  called  by  his  name ; 
and  another  illustrious  company  edited  a  vast 
encyclopaedia,  containing  articles  on  every  known 
subject,  and  extracts  from  all  works  of  author- 
ity dating  from  the  twelfth  centurj'  B.  C.  to 
that  time.  This  huge  work,  which  consists  of 
five  thousand  and  twenty  volumes,  is  a  monu- 
ment of  industrious  research.  But  as  only  a 
hundred  copies  of  the  first  imperial  edition 
were  printed,  all  of  which  were  presented  to 
princes  of  the  blood  and  high  officials,  it  is 
rapidly  becoming  extremely  rare,  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  before  long  the  copy  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
will  be  the  only  complete  one  existing.  A  cold, 
caught  on  a  hunting  excursion  in  Mongolia, 
brought    K'ang-he's    memorable    reign   of    sixty- 


52  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

one  years  to  a  close,  and  he  was  succeeded 
on  the  throne  by  his  son,  Yung-ching,  in  the 
year  1722. 

After  an  uneventful  reign  of  twelve  years, 
Yung-ching  was  gathered  to  his  fathers,  having 
bequeathed  his  throne  to  his  son  K'een-lung. 
This  sovereign  possessed  many  of  the  great 
qualities  of  K'ang-he,  but  he  lacked  his  wis- 
dom and  moderation.  He  carried  his  armies 
north,  south  and  west,  but  though  he  converted 
Kuldja  into  a  Chinese  province,  and  fought 
a  successful  campaign  against  the  Nepaulese 
Gorkhas,  fortune  on  the  whole  inclined  rather 
to  the  standard  of  his  enemies,  than  to  his  own. 
In  Burmah,  Cochin  China,  and  Formosa,  his 
troops  suffered  discomfitures,  and  even  the 
Meaou-tsze  tribes  of  Kwei-chow  and  Kwang-se 
proved  themselves  troublesome  antagonists.  Dur- 
ing his  reign,  which  extended  over  sixty  years 
—  a  full  Chinese  cj'cle  —  the  relations  of  his 
government  with  the  East  India  Company  were 
extremely  unsatisfActory.  The  English  mer- 
chants were  compelled  to  submit  to  many  in- 
dignities and  wrongs ;  and  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  better  international  understand- 
,  ing.   Lord   Macartney  was   sent    by   George  the 


The  JlJnglish  in   China.  65 

Third  on  a  special  mission  to  the  Court  of 
Peking.  The  ambassador  was  received  gra- 
ciously by  the  emperor,  who  accepted  the  pres- 
ents sent  him  by  the  English  king,  but  owing 
to  his  ignorance  of  his  own  relative  position 
and  of  the  alphabet  of  international  law,  he 
declined  to  give  those  assurances  of  a  more 
equitable  policy  which  were  demanded  of  him. 
In  1795,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  he  ab- 
dicated in  favor  of  his  fifteenth  son,  who 
ascended  the  throne  with  the  title  of  Kea- 
K'ing. 

During  this  reign  a  second  English  embassy 
was  sent  to  Peking  (1816),  to  represent  to 
the  emperor  the  unsatisfactory  position  of  the 
English  merchants  in  China.  The  envoy.  Lord 
Amherst,  was  met  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho 
and  conducted  to  Yuen-ming-yuen,  or  summer 
palace,  where  the  emperor  was  residing.  On 
his  arrival  he  was  officially  warned  that  only 
on  condition  of  his  performing  the  Ko-t'ow 
would  he  be  permitted  to  behold  "  the  dragon 
countenance."  This,  of  course,  was  impossible, 
and  he  consequently  left  the  palace  without 
having  slept  a  night  under  its  roof.  Mean- 
while  the   internal   affairs   of  the    country   were 


56  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

even  more  disturbed  than  the  foreign  rela- 
tioii^-.  A  succession  of  rebellions  broke  out 
in  the  northern  and  western  provinces,  and 
the  seaboard  was  ravaged  by  pirates.  Wliile 
these  disturbing  causes  were  in  full  play,  Kea- 
k'iiig  died  (1820),  and  the  throne  devolved  upon 
Taou-kwang,    his  second    son. 

Under  this  monarch  both  home  and  foreign 
affairs  went  from  bad  to  worse.  A  secret 
league,  known  as  the  Triad  Societ}-,  wiiich  was 
first  formed  during  the  reign  of  K'ang-he,  now 
assumed  a  formidable  bearing,  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  notably  in  Honan,  Kwang-se, 
and  Formosa,  insurrections  broke  out  at  its  in- 
stigation. At  the  same  time  the  mandarins 
continued  to  persecute  the  English  merchants, 
and  on  the  expiry  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's monopoly,  in  1834,  ,the  English  govern- 
ment sent  Lord  Napier  to  Canton  to  superintend 
the  foreign  trade  at  that  port.  Thwarted  at 
every  turn  by  the  presumptuous  obstinacy  of 
the  mandarins,  Lord  Napier's  health  gave  way 
under  the  constant  vexations  connected  with  his 
post,  and  he  died  at  Macao,  after  but  a  few 
months'  residence  in  China.  The  opium  trade 
was    now    the    question    of    the    hour,   and    at 


The   Opium    War.  57 

the  urgent  demand  of  Commissioner  Lin,  Cap- 
tain Elliot,  the  superintendent  of  trade,  agreed 
that  all  opium  in  the  hands  of  English  mer- 
chants should  be  given  up  to  the  authorities; 
and  more  than  this,  he  exacted  a  pledge  from 
his  countrymen,  that  they  would  no  longer  deal 
in  the  drug.  On  the  third  of  April,  1839, 
20,283  chests  of  opium  were,  in  accordance 
with  this  agreement,  handed  over  to  the  man- 
darins, who  burnt  them  to  ashes  This  demand 
of  Lin's,  though  agreed  to  by  the  superintendent 
of  trade,  was  considered  so  unreasonable  by  the 
English  government,  that  in  the  following  year 
war  was  declared  against  China.*  The  island 
of  Chusan  and  the  Bogue  forts  on  the  Canton 
river  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
and  Commissioner  Lin's  successor  sought  to 
purchase  peace  by  the  cession  of  Hongkong 
and  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  of  six  mil- 
lion dollars.  This  convention  was,  however, 
repudiated  by  the  Peking  government,-  and  it 
was  not  until  Canton,  Amoy,  Ningpo,  Chapoo, 
Shanghai,  and  Chin-keang-fno  had  been  taken, 
that   the    emperor    at   last  consented  to  come  to 


•The  importation  of  opium  was  unlawful,  but,  being  very  profitable,  Great 
Britain  determined  to  force  it  upon  the  Chinese. 


58  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

terms.  These,  as  was  only  just,  were  now  far 
more  onerous.  By  a  treaty  made  by  Sir  Henry 
Pottinger  in  1842,  the  cession  of  Hongkong 
was  supplemented  by  the  opening  of  the  four 
ports  of  Amoy,  Fuh-chow  foo,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai)  to  foreign  trade,  and  the  indemnity 
of  six  million  dollars  was  increased  to  twenty- 
one  million.  Death  put  an  end  to  Taou-kwang's 
reign  in  1850,  and  his  fourth  son,  Heeu-fung, 
assumed  rule  over  tHe  distracted  empire  which 
was   bequeathed    him    by    his   father. 

There  is  a  popular  belief  among  the  Chinese 
that  two  hundred  years  is  the  natural  life  of 
a  dynast3\  This  is  one  of  those  traditions 
which  are  apt  to  bring  about  their  own  fulfil- 
ment, and  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Heen-fung  the  political  air  was  rife  with  rumors 
that  an  effort  was  to  be  made  to  restore  the 
Ming  Dynasty  to  the  throne.  On  such  occa- 
sions there  are  always  real  or  pretended  scions 
of  the  required  family  forthcoming,  and  when 
the  flames  of  rebellion  broke  out  in  Kwang-se, 
a  claimant  suddenly  appeared  under  tlie  title  of 
T'een-tih,  "heavenly  virtue,"  to  head  the  move- 
ment. But  T'een-tih  had  not  the  capacity  re- 
quired   to    play    the    necessary    part,    and    the 


The  Life  of  a  Dynasty.         '  69 

affair  languished  and  would  have  died  out 
altogether,  had  not  a  leader,  named  Hung 
Sewtseuen,  arose,  who  combined  all  the  qualities 
required  in  a  leader  of  men  —  en'ergy,  enthu- 
siasm, and  religious  bigotry.  Having  obtained 
some  idea  of  Christianity  from  reading  a  tract 
issued  by  the  missionaries,  he  professed  him- 
self shocked  at  the  iniquities  of  the  pagan 
rulers  of  the  land,  and  thus  added  to  the 
thousands  of  restless,  discontented  spirits  who 
joined  his  banner  a  larger  following  gathered 
from  the  upper  classes.  As  soon  as  he  was 
sufficiently  powerful,  he  advanced  northwards 
into  Hoonan  and  Hoopih  and  captured  Woo- 
ehang  foo,  the  capital  of  the  last-named  prov- 
ince, a  city  of  considerable  commercial  and 
strategical  importance,  situated  as  it  is  at  the 
junction  of  the  Han  river  with  the  Yang-tsze 
keang.  Having  made  this  place  secure,  he  ad- 
vanced down  the  river  and  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Gan-ting  and  the  old  capital  of  the 
empire,  Nanking.  Here,  in  1852,  he  established 
l)is  throne  and  proclaimed  the  commencement 
of  the  Tai-ping  Dynasty.  For  himself  h& 
adopted  the  title  of  T'een-wang,  or  "heavenly 
king."      For    a    time    all    went    well    with    the 


60  S}cetch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

new  dynasty.  The  Tai-ping  standard  was  cap 
ried  northward  to  the  walls  of  T'ien-tsin,  and 
floated  over  the  towns  of  Chin-keang  foo  and 
Soochow   foo. 

Meanwhile  the  imperial  authorities  had  by 
their  stupidity  raised  another  enemy  .  against 
themselves.  The  outrage  oh  the  English  flag 
perpetrated  on  board  the  Lorcha  Arrow  at 
Ciinton,  in  1857,  having  been  left  unredressed 
by  the  mandarins,  led  to  the  proclamation  of 
war -by  England.  Canton  fell  to  the  arms  of 
General  Straubenzee  and  Sir  Michael  Seymour  in 
December  of  the  same  year,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing spring  the  Taku  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho  having  been  taken,  Lord  Elgin,  who  had 
in  the  meantime  arrived  as  Plenipotentiary,  ad- 
vanced up  the  river  to  T'ien-tsin  on  his  way 
to  the  capital.  At  that  cit}^  however,  he  was 
met  by  imperial  commissioners,  and,  yielding  to 
their  entreaties,  he  concluded  a  treftt}'  with' 
them,  which  it  was  arranged  should  be  ratified} 
at  Peking  in  the  following  year;  but  the  evil 
genius  of  tl»e  Chinese  still  pursuing  them,  they 
treacherously  fired  on  the  fleet  accompanying 
Sir  Frederick  Bruce,  Lord  Elgin's  brother,  when 
proceeding,  in   1860,  to  Peking,  in  fulfilment  of 


Lord   Elgin  in  Chinal  61 

this  agreement.  This  outrage  rendered  another 
military  expedition  necessary,  and,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  French  Government,  the  English 
Cabinet  sent  out  a  force  under  the  command 
of  Sir  Hope  Grant,  with  orders  to  march  to 
Peking.  In  the  summer  of  1861  the  allied 
forces  landed  at  Peh-tang,  a  village  twelve 
miles  north  of  the  Taku  forts,  and,  taking 
these  entKenchments  in  the  rear,  captured  them 
with  but  a  trifling  loss.  This  success  was  so 
utterly  unexpected  by  the  Chinese,  that,  leav- 
ing T'ien-tsin  unprotected,  they  retreated  rap- 
idly to  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital.  The 
allies  pushed  on  after  them,  and,  in  reply  to 
an  invitation  sent  from  the  imperial  commis- 
sioners at  Tung-chow,  a  town  twelve  miles 
from  Peking,  Sir  Harry  Parkes  and  Mr.  Loch, 
accompanied  by  an  escort  and  some  few  friends, 
went  in  advance  of  the  army  to  make  a  pre- 
liminary convention.  While  so  engaged  they 
were  treacherously  taken  prisoners  and  carried 
off  to  Peking.  This  act  precipitated  an  en- 
gagement in  which  the  Chinese  were  completely 
routed,  and  the  allies  marched  on  to  Peking. 
After  the  usual  display  of  obstinacy  the  Chinese 
yielded  to  tl^e  demand  for  the  surrender  of  the 


62  Sketch  of  the  Ristory  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 

All-ting  Gate  of  the  city.  From  this  vantage- 
point  Lord  Elgin  opened  negotiations,  and  hav- 
ing secured  the  release  of  Sir  Harry  Parkes, 
/  Mr.  Loch,  and  the  other  prisoners  who  had  sur- 
vived the  tortures  to  which  they  had  been  sub- 
jected, and  having  burnt  Yuen-ming-yuen,  the 
summer  palace  of  the  emperor,  as  a  punishment 
for  their  treacfherous  capture,  and  for  the  cruel- 
ties perpetrated  on  them,  he  concludeTd  a  treaty 
with  Prince  Kung,  the  representative  of  the  em- 
peror. By  this  instrument  the  Chinese  agreed 
to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  eight  million  taels, 
and  to  open  the  ports  of  New-chwang,  Che-foo, 
Kin-keang,  Chin-keang,  Hankow,  Pak-lioi,  Tai- 
wan in  Formosa,  and  a  port  in  the  island  of 
Hainan,  to  foreign  trade,  and  to  permit  the 
representatives  of  the  foreign  governments  to 
reside   in   Peking, 

Having  '  thus  relieved  themselves  from  the 
presence  of  a  foreign  foe,  the  authorities  were 
able  to  devote  their  attention  to  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Tai-ping  rebellion.  Fortunately  for 
themselves,  the  apparent  friendliness  with  which 
they  greeted  the  arrival  of  the  British  Lega- 
tion at  Peking  enlisted  for  them  the  sj'mpathies 
of    Sir   Frederick    Bruce,   the    British    Minister, 


A    STREET    IN    THE    NORTH    Ol       CHINA. 


"  Chinese   Grordon  "  Appears.  66 

and  inclined  him  to  listen  to  their  request  for 
the  services  of  an  English  officer  in  their  cam- 
paign against  the  rebels.  At  the  request  of 
Sir  F.  Bruce,  General  Staveley  selected  Major 
Gordon,*  since  generally  known  as  "  Chinese 
Gordon,"  for  this  duty.  A  better  man,  or  one 
more  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  work,  could  not 
have  been  found.  A  numerous  force,  known  as 
"the  ever-victorious  army,"  partly  officered  by 
foreigners,  had  for  some  time  been  commanded 
by  an  American,  named  Ward,  and  after  his 
death,  by  B  urge  vine,  another  American.  Over 
this  force  Gordon  was  placed,  and  at  the  head 
of  it  he  marched,  in  conjunction  with  the  Chi- 
nese generals,  against  the  Tai-pings.  With  mas- 
terly strategy  he  struck  a  succession  of  rapid 
and  telling  blows  against  the  fortunes  of  the 
rebels.  City  after  city  fell  into  his  hands,  and 
at  length  the  leaders  at  Soochow  opened  the 
gates  ■  of  the  city  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
would  spare  their  lives.  With  cruel  treachery 
when  these  men  presented  themselves  before  Le 
Hung-chang,  the  present  Viceroy  of  Chih-li,  to 
offer  their  submission  to  the  emperor,  they  were 


•General  Gordon  has  been  prominent  in  the  Egyptian  war  of  the  English  du- 
ring the  present  year.     He  was  killed  in  January,  1885. 

5 


66  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

seized  and  beheaded.  On  learning  how  lightly 
his  word  had  been  treated  by  the  Chinese  gen- 
eral, Gordon  armed  himself,  for  the  first  time 
during  the  campaign,  with  a  revolver,  and  sought 
out  the  Chinese  headquarters,  intending  to  avenge 
with  his  own  hand  this  murder  of  the  Tai-ping 
leaders;  but  Le  Huug-chang  having  received 
timely  notice  of  the  righteous  anger  he  had 
aroused,  took  to  flight,  and  Gordon,  thus  thwarted 
in  his  immediate  object,  threw  up  his  command, 
feeling  that  it  was  impossible  to  continue  to 
act  with   so   orientally   minded  a   colleague. 

After  considerable  negotiation,  however,  he  was 
persuaded  to  return  to  his  command,  and  soon 
succeeded  in  so  completely  crippling  the  power 
of  the  rebels  that  Nanking,  their  last  strong- 
hold, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Imperialists, 
July  19,  1864.  T'een-wang  was  then  already 
dead,  having  committed  suicide,  and  his  body 
was  found  within  the  walls,  wrapt  in  im- 
perial 3-ellovv.  Thus  was  crushed  out  a  rebel- 
lion which  had  paralyzed  the  imperial  power 
in  the  central  provinces  of  the  'empire,  and 
which  had  for  twelve  years  seriously  threatened 
the   existence   of  the   reigning   dynast}'. 

Meanwhile,  in   the  summer  following  the  con- 


The  Rule  of   Women.  67 

elusion  of  the  treaty  of  Peking,  the  Emperor 
Heen-fung  breathed  his  last  at  Jehol  (1861) 
—  an  event  which  was,  in  popular  belief,  fore- 
told by  the  appearance  of  a  comet  in  the 
early  pnrt  of  the  summer  —  and  was  succeeded 
on  the  throne  by  his  only  son,  who  adopted 
the  ^itle  of  T'ung-che.  Being  quite  a  child 
at  the  time  of  liis  accession,  the  administra- 
tion of  affairs  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
empress  and  of  the  mother  of  T'ung-che,  a 
lady  who  had  not  occupied  the  supreme  post 
in   the   emperor's   harem. 

Under  the  direction  of  these  ladies,  though 
the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire  prospered,  the 
foreign  relations  were  disturbed  by  the  display 
of  an  increasingly  hostile  spirit  towards  the 
Christian  missionaries  and  their  converts,  which 
culminated,  in  1870,  in  the  "  T'ien-tsin  massa- 
cre." In  some  of  the  central  provinces  reports 
had  been  industriously  circulated  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  were  in  the  habit  of  kid- 
napping and  murdering  children,  in  order  to 
make  medicine  from  their  eyeballs.  Ridiculous 
as  the  rumor  was,  it  found  ready  credence 
among  the  ignorant  people,  and  several  out- 
rages were   perpetrated   on  the  missionaries  and 


68  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

their  converts  in  Keang-se  and  Sze-cluien. 
Through  the  active  interference,  however,  of 
the  French  minister  on  the  spot,  the  agitation 
was  locally  suppressed,  but  only  to  be  renewed 
again  at  T'ien-tsin.  Here  also  the  same  absurd 
rumors  were  set  afloat,  and  were  especially  di- 
rected against  some  Sisters  of  Charity  who 
had  opened  an  orphanage  in  the  city.  For 
some  days  previous  to  the  massacre  on  the 
twenty-first  of  June,  reports  increasing  in  con- 
sistency' reached  the  foreign  residents  that  an 
outbreak  was  to  be  apprehended,  and  three 
times  the  English  Consul  wrote  to  Chung  How» 
the  Superintendent  of  the  three  northern  ports* 
calling  upon  him  to  take  measures  to  subdue 
the  gathering  passions  of  the  people,  which 
had  been  further  dangerously  exasperated  by 
an  infamous  proclamation  issued  by  the  pre- 
fect. Tp  these  communications  the  consul  did 
not  receive  any  reply,  and  o\i  the  morning  of 
the  twenty-first,  a  da)'  which  had  apparent!}' 
been  deliberately  fixed  upon  for  the  massacre, 
the  attack  was  made.  The  mob  first  broke 
into  the  French  consulate,  and  while  the  con- 
sul, M.  Fontanier,  was  with  Chung  How,  en- 
deavoring    to    persuade    him     to    interfere,    M. 


The   T'ien-tsin  Massacre.  69 

and  Mad.  Thomasin,  M.  and  Mad.  Chalmaison, 
and  Pere  Chevrien  were  there  murdered.  On 
his  way  back  to  tlie  consulate,  M.  Fontanier 
suffered  the  same  fate.  Having  thus  whetted 
their  taste  for  blood,  the  rioters  then  set  fire 
to  the  French  cathedral,  and  afterwards  moved 
on  to  the  orphanage  of  the  Sisters  of-  Mercy. 
In  spite  of  the  appeals  of  these  defenceless 
ladies  for  mercy,  if  not  for  themselves,  at 
/east  for  the  orphans  under  their  charge,  the 
mob  broke  into  the  hospital,  and,  having  mur- 
dered the  Sisters,  smothered  from  thirty  to 
forty  children,  and  carried  off  a  still  larger 
number  of  older  persons  to  the  prisons  in  the 
city,  where  they  were  subjected  to  tortures  of 
which  they  bore  terrible  evidence  when  their 
release  was  at  length  effected.  In  addition  to 
tliese  victims,  a  Russian  gentleman,  with  his 
bride  and  a  friend,  who  were  unfortunate  enough 
to  meet  the  rioters  on  their  way  to  the  cathe- 
dral, were  ruthlessl}'  murdered.  No  other  for- 
eigners were  injured,  a  circumstance  due  to 
the  facts  that  the  fury  of  the  mob  was  pri- 
marily directed  against  the  French  Roman 
Catholics,  and  also  that  the  foreign  settlement, 
where  all  but  those  engaged  in  missionary  work 


70  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

resided,  is  at  a  distance  of  a  couple  of  miles 
from    the    city. 

When  the  evil  had  been  done,  the  Chinese 
authorities  professed  themselves  anxious  to  make 
reparation,  and  Chung  How  was  eventually 
sent  to  Paris  to  offer  the  apologies  of  the 
Peking  cabinet  to  the  French  government. 
These  were  ultimately  accepted,  and  it  was 
further  arranged  that  the  T'ien-tsin  prefect  and 
district  magistrate  should  be  removed  from  their 
posts  and  degraded,  and  that  twent}'  of  the 
active   murderers   should  be   executed. 

By  these  retributive  measures  the  emperor's 
government  made  its  peace  with  the  European 
powers,  and  the  foreign  relations  again  assumed 
their  former  friendly  footing.  The  Chinese  had 
now  leisure  to  devote  their  efforts  to  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Panthay  rebels,  who  for  some 
ten  or  twelve  years  had  held  almost  undisputed 
possession  of  the  province  of  Yunnan.  The 
visit  of  the  adopted  son  of  the  rebel  leader, 
the  Sultan  Suleiman,  to  England,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attempting  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of 
the  English  government  in  the  Pantha}-  cause, 
no  doubt  added  zest  to  the  action  of  the  man- 
darins,  who,   after    a    short    but    vigorous    cam* 


A   Complex  Marriage.  71 

paign,  suppressed  the  rebellion  and  restored  the 
province  to  the  imperial  sway.  Peace  was  thus 
brought  about,  and  when  the  empresses  handed 
over  the  reins  of  power  to  the  emperor,  on 
the  occasion  of  his  marriage,  in  1872,  tran- 
quility reigned  throughout  "the  eighteen  prov- 
inces." 

The  marriage  of  T'ung-che  was  accompanied 
with  numerous  and  complex  ceremonies,  as  is 
every  act  in  the  life  of  a  Chinese  emperor. 
The  bride  had  first  to  be  chosen  from  the 
daughters  of  Manchoos,  enrolled  under  one  of 
the  eight  military  banners.  About  a  year  before 
the  marriage  all  girls  of  this  class,  who  were 
of  a  specified  age,  were  ordered  to  present 
themselves  at  the  palace.  Between  six  and 
seven  hundred  came,  and  these  were  introduced 
into  the  presence  of  the  dowager-empresses  in 
batches  of  ten  at  a  time.  The  result  of  this 
preliminary  examination  was  that  about  fifty 
were  chosen,  and  the  rest  were  sent  back  to 
their  homes.  A  second  interview  with  the 
empresses  ended  in  the  reduction  of  the  selected 
number  by  one  half,  and  by  a  continued  pro- 
cess of  sifting  the  candidates,  the  lady,  Ah-lu-t^, 
was    chosen    as    the    "  Phoenix "   to    mate    the 


72  Sketch  of  the  Hutory  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

"Dragon."  While  these  matters  were  proceed- 
ing, four  young  ladies  were  chosen  as  *'  Pro- 
fessors of  matrimony  "  to  instruct  the  emperor 
in  the  duties  of  the  new  relation,  and,  after 
much  questioning  of  the  stars,  the  officers  of 
the  Astronomical  Board  fixed  upon  the  niglit 
between  the  fifteenth  and  the  sixteenth  of 
October  for  the  supreme  ceremony.  As  the 
time  approached  the  lady,  Ah-lu-t6,  who  was 
the  daughter  of  the  only  Manchoo  who  ever 
gained  the  title  of  Chwang-yuen,  the  highest 
prize  to  be  won  at  the  competitive  examina- 
tions, and  four  other  ladies,  who  were  destined 
to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  imperial  harem, 
were  lodged  in  a  palace  especially  prepared 
and  beautified  for  them  in  the  imperial  capi- 
tal. The  road  between  this  palace  and  the 
imperial  abode  was  carefully  levelled  and  con- 
stantly sprinkled  with  sand,  of  the  yellow 
imperial  color,  and  each  morning  long  proces- 
sions of  bearers  passed  along  it  carrying  the 
presents  destined  for  the  bride,  which  poured 
in  from  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Cabinets, 
dishes,  vases,  basins,  bowls,  chairs,  and  a  host 
of  gold  and  silver  articles  of  all  kinds  were 
borne   on   uncovered    trays   escorted    by   manda- 


Honoring  the  Bride.  78 

rins  and  troops,  forming  a  daily  spectacle  for 
the   idlers   in    the    capital. 

One  day,  before  the  marriage,  a  tablet  of  gold 
was  sent  to  the  bride,  on  which  was  inscribed 
the  edict  elevating  her  to  the  throne,  together 
with  an  imperial  sceptre  and  seal.  The  next 
day  another  procession,  escorting  "the  Phoenix^^ 
Chair,"  passed  along  to  the  bride's  palace.  At 
.its  head  rode  a  Manchoo  prince,  attended  by 
lesser  chiefs  en  grande  tenue^  the  prince  carry- 
ing in  his  hand  the  jade  sceptre,  *  which  is 
constantly  held  by  the  emperor.  Thirty  white 
horses  followed  closel}-  on  these  imperial  insignia, 
and  the  rest  of  the  cavalcade  was  made  up 
of  officials  carrying  banners,  triple  umbrellas 
adorned  with  embroidered  representations  of 
dragons  and  phoenixes,  and  fans,  and  bearing 
"golden   melons"   on   long   poles. 

At  eleven  o'clock  the  same  evening,  the  same 
procession,  with  the  addition  of  the  bride  and 
the  golden  tablet,  the  sceptre  and  the  seal, 
started  for  the  imperial  palace.  Every  house 
was  strictly  closed  along  the  route,  which  was 
guarded  through  its  whole  length  by  troops, 
and   at   the   side    of    the    bridal    chair    marched 

*  Jade  is  a  dark  green  mineral,  of  smooth  surface,  much  used  for  ornaments. 


74  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

an  official  of  the  Astronomical  Board,  carrying 
a  lighted  joss-stick,*  so  marked  as  to  indicate 
portions  of  time,  by  means  of  which  he  regu- 
lated the  pace  of  the  procession,  in  order  that 
the  imperial  palace  might  be  reached  at  tiie 
fortunate  moment  of  two  in  the  morning.  On 
arriving  at  the  palace,  the  "  Great  Pure  Gate " 
was  '  thrown  open,  and  Ah-lu-t^  was  carried 
through  the  outer  courts  to  the  great  central 
court  leading  to  the  throne  room.  A  herald 
then  proclaimed,  "  The  orders  of  His  Sacred 
Majesty  are  fulfilled,"  and  forthwith  the  dow- 
ager-empresses came  out  to  receive  the  bride. 
They  placed  pieces  of  uncoined  gold  and  sil- 
ver in  her  hands,  and  crossed  them  over  her 
breast  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  her  also  to 
carry  a  vase  containing  wheat,  maze,  rice,  em- 
eralds, sapphires,  rubies,  and  other  articles,  to 
symbolize  all  that  earth  produces.  She  then 
stepped  from  her  sedan  on  to  a  small  golden 
saddle,  and  thus  entered  her  future  home.  The 
remaining  ceremonies  were  similar  in  kind  to 
those  performed,  at  marriages  among  the  com- 
mon people,  and  thus  Ah-lu-t^  became  an 
empress,   and    her    father,   catching    a    reflection 

*A  joss-stick  is  a  p>erfumed  reed  burned  before  a  deity.    Portuguese  dios,  God. 


Ah-lu-ti  Becomes  a  Bride,  76 

of  his  daughter's  greatness,  was  made  a  Duke.* 
On  the  day  after  the  wedding,  the  four  ladies 
spoken  of  above,  who  were  destined  to  become 
imperial  concubines  of  the  first  class,  were 
brought  into  the  palace,  not  through  "the 
Great  Pure  Gate,"  but  by  a  more  obscure  en- 
trance on  the  north  of  the  palace.  The  Book 
of  Rites  of  the  present  dynasty,  which  regu- 
lates every  official  observance  in  China,  ordains 
that  the  number  of  these  ladies  should  be  in- 
creased to  nine,  that  twenty-seven  other  young 
ladies  should  be  chosen  as  concubines  of  the 
second  class,  and  eighty-one  as  concubines  of 
the  third  class.  All  these  are  subordinate  to 
tl)e  empress,  who  alone  is  entitled  to  enjoy  the 
societ)'-  of  the  emperor  at  the  time  of  full  moon, 
and  who,  in  theory  at  least,  apportions  to  each 
the  special  household  duties  pertaining  to  her 
rank. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  so  large  and  extrav- 
agant a  household  is  enormous,  and  the  looms 
of  Soochow  and  Nanking  are  barely  able  to 
supply  the  host  of  ladies  and  attendants  with 
the  silks  and  satins  required  for  their  use.  In 
1877    the   Peking    Gazette   announced   that,  dur- 

*  "  Meeting  the  Sun,"  by  William  Simpson. 


76  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

ing  the  preceding  year,  three  hundred  and  sev- 
enty rolls  of  satin,  five  hundred  rolls  of  bro- 
caded satin,  three  thousand  four  hundred  rolls 
of  silk  gauze,  six  hundred  large  handkerchiefs, 
eight  hundred  catties  of  sewing  silk,  five  hun- 
dred catties  of  white  silk,  and  three  thousand 
pieces  of  fine  calico,  had  been  furnished  by  the 
imperial  purveyor  at  Nanking,  besides  the  im- 
mense stores  which  were  poured  in  from  Hang- 
chow  and  Soochow.  From  the  imperial  proce- 
lain  factories  at  Kin-tih-chin  eleven  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  thirty-eight  articles,  consist- 
ing of  fish-bowls,  flower  vases,  and  ornamental 
jars  of  the  first  quality,  were  forwarded  to  the 
palace  during  the  same  year,  in  addition  to  an 
abundance  of  articles  of  a  common  kind,  des- 
tined  for    baser   uses. 

The  formal  assumption  of  power  proclaimed 
by  this  marriage  was  considered  by  the  foreign 
ministers  a  fitting  opportunity  to  insist  on  the 
fulfilment  of  the  article  in  the  treaties  which 
provided  for  their  reception  by  the  emperor,  and 
after  much  negotiation  it  was  finally  arranged 
that  the  emperor  should  receive  them  on  the 
twenty-ninth  of  June,  1873.  The  ceremonj'  is 
thus   described.     "Verj^  early,  therefore,  on   the 


An  Imperial  Reception.  79 

morning  of  that  day  the  ministers  were  astir, 
and  were  conducted  in  their  sedan-chairs  to  tlie 
park  on  the  west  side  of  the  pahice,  where,  hav- 
ing dismounted  from  their  sedans,  they  were 
met  by  some  of  the  ministers  of  State,  who  led 
them  to  the  '  Temple  of  Prayer  for  Seasonable 
Weather.'  Here  they  were  kept  waiting  some 
time  while  tea  and  confectionery  from  the 
imperial  kitchen,  by  favor  of  the  emperor,  were 
served  to  them.  They  were  then  conducted  to 
an  oblong  tent  made  of  matting,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Tsze-kwang  Pavilion,  where  they 
were  met  by  Prince  Kung  and  other  ministers. 
As  soon  as  the  emperor  reached  the  Pavilion,, 
the  Japanese?  ambassador  was  introduced  into  his^^ 
presence,  and  when  he  had  retired  the  other  for- 
eign ministers  entered  the  audience-chamber  ia 
a  body.  The  emperor  was  seated,  facing  south- 
wards. On  either  side  of  his  Majesty  stood, 
with  the  Prince  of  Kung,  certain  princes  and 
high  officers ;  in  all,  four  or  five  persons. 
When  the  foreign  ministers  reached  the  centre 
aisle  they  halted  and  bowed  one  and  all  to- 
gether ;  they  then  advanced  in  line  a  little  fur- 
ther and  made  a  second  bow ;  and  when  they 
had  nearly  reached  the  yellow  table  —  on  which 


80  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

their  credentials  were,  as  arranged,  to  be  de- 
posited—  they  bowed  a  third  time;  after  which 
the}'-  remained  erect.  M.  Vlangaly,  the  Russian  ^ 
minister,  then  read  a  congratulatory  address  in 
French,  which  was  translated  by  an  interpreter 
into  Chinese,  and  the  ministers,  making  an- 
other reverence,  respectfully  laid  their  letters 
of  credence  on  the  yellow  table.  The  emperor 
was  pleased  to  make  a  slight  inclination  of 
the  head  towards  them,  and  the  Prince  of 
Kung,  advancing  to  the  left  of  the  throne, 
and  falling  upon  his  knees,  had  the  honor  to 
be  informed,  in  Manchoo,  that  His  Majesty- 
acknowledged  the  receipt  of  the  letters  pre- 
sented. The  Prince  of  Kung,  with  his  arms 
raised  (according  to  precedent  set  by  Confucius 
when  in  the  presence  of  his  sovereign),  came 
down  by  the  steps  on  the  left  of  the  dais  to 
the  foreign  ministers,  and  respectfully  repeated 
this  in  Chinese.  After  this  he  again  pros- 
trated himself,  and  in  like  manner  received 
and  conveyed  a  message  to  the  effect  that  His 
Majesty  hoped  that  all  foreign  questions  would 
be  satisfactorily  disposed  of.  The  ministers 
then  withdrew,  bowing  repeatedly  until  they 
reached    the    entrance." 


"^w  Inheritance  of  Glory.'*  81 

Thus  ended  the  only  instance  during  the 
present  century  in  which  Europeans  have 
been  received  in  imperial  audience.  Whether 
under  more  fortunate  circumstances  the  cere- 
mony might  have  been  repeated  it  is  difficult 
to  say,  but  in  the  following  year  the  young 
emperor  was  stricken  down  with  smallpox,  or, 
as  the  Peking  Gazette  expressed  it,  "enjoyed 
the  felicity  of  the  heavenly  flowers,"  and  fin- 
ally succumbed  to  the  disease  on  the  twelfth 
of  January,  1875.  With  great  ceremony  the 
obsequies  were  performed  over'  the  body  of 
him  who  had  been  T'ung-clie,  and  the  coffin 
was  finally  laid  in  the  imperial  mausoleum, 
among'  the  eastern  hills,  beside  the  remains  of 
his  predecessors,  Shun-che,  K'ang-he,  Yung-ching, 
K'een-lung,  Kea-k'ing,  Taou-kwang,  and  Heen- 
fung. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  annals  of  the  Ts'ing 

dynasty,  the    throne    was    now    left    without   a 

direct   heir.     As   it   is  the  office  of  the  son  and 

heir  to  perform  regularl}-  the  ancestral  worship, 

it    is    necessary   that,    failing     a   son,    the    heir 

should    be,    if    possible,   of    a    later    generation 

than    the    deceased.      In    the     present    instance 

this   was   impossible,    as   there   was    no   descend- 
6 


82  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

aut  of  a  subsequent  generation.  It  was  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  the  lot  should  fall  on  one 
of  the  cousins  of  the  late  emperor,  and  Tsai- 
teen,  the  son  of  the  Prince  of  Chun,  a  child 
not  quite  four  j^ears  old,  was  chosen  to  fill 
the  vacant  throne.  Kwang-su,  or  "  au  iidierit- 
ance  of  glory,"  was  the  title  conferred  upon 
him,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
events  of  his  reign  will  justify  so  high-sound- 
ing  a   promise. 

Scarcely  had  the  proclamation  gone  forth  of 
the  assumption  of  the  imperial  title  by  Kwaug- 
su,  when  news  reached  the  English  Legation 
at .  Peking  of  the  murder  at  Manwyne,  in  the 
Province  of  Yunnan,  of  Mr.  Margary,  an  officer 
in  the  Consular  Service,  who  had  been  de- 
spatched to  meet  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Indian  Government,  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  Horace  Browne,  to  discover  a  route 
from  Burraah  into  the  southwestern  provinces 
of  China.  A  more  thoroughly  competent  officer 
than  Mr.  Margary  could  not  have  been  selected 
for  the  undertaking,  and  the  choice  made  was 
full}'^  justified  by  the  way  in  which  he  per- 
formed the  journey  to  Bhamo  in  Burmah,  in 
spite    of    illness    and    of    the     many    obstacles 


f^4^-^^ 


"  Briqands  did  it !  "  85 

thrown  in  his  way  by  the  native  officials.  He 
left  Shanghai,  on  his  journey  westward,  on 
the  twenty-third  of  August,  1874,  and  reached 
Bharao,  where  he  met  Colonel  Browne's  party, 
on  the  seventeenth  of  the  following  January, 
On  the  eighteenth  of  February  he  once  more 
turned  his  face  eastward,  in  company  with  the 
Indian  Exhibition.  Scarcely,  however,  had  they 
Jbegun  their  march,  when  rumors  reached  them 
that  the  frontier  Chinese  were  preparing  to 
bar  their  progress.  After  his  recent  experience 
of  the  friendly  disposition  of  the  mandarins 
in  this  part  of  the  country,  Margary  declined 
to  attach  any  importance  to  these  reports,  and, 
with  the  concurrence  of  Colonel  Browne,  he 
started  in  advance  of  the  party,  accompanied 
only  by  his  Ciiinese  writer  and  servant,  to 
^  ascertain  the  real  facts  of  the  case.  From  all 
accounts,  he  reached  Manwyne  in  safety,  but, 
when  visiting  some  hot  springs  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town,  he  was  treacherously 
knocked    off  his   pon}'^    and    murdered. 

In  accordance  with  conventional  practice,  the 
Chinese  government,  on  being  called  to  account 
for  this  outrage,  attempted  to  lay  it  to  the 
charge   of  brigands.      But    the    evidence   which 


86  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

Sir  Thomas  Wade  was  able  to  adduce  proved 
too  strong  to  be  ignored  even  by  tlie  Peking 
mandarins,  and,  eventuall3%  they  signed  a  con- 
vention in  whicli  the}'  practicall}'  acknowledged 
their  blood-guiltiness,  under  the  terms  of  which 
some  fresh  commercial  privileges  were  granted, 
and  an  indemnity,  part  of  which,  viz.,  ten 
thousand  pounds,  was  handed  ovei  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Mr.  Margar}-,  was  paid  to  the  English 
Government.  At  the  same  time  tlie  "expect- 
ant Vice-President,"  Kwo  Sung-tuou,  was  sent 
to  England  to  apologize  for  this  breach  of 
international  amity,  and  to  establish  an  embassy 
on  a  perYnanent  footing  at  the  Court  of  St. 
James.  With  the  conclusion  of  this  agreement 
the  friendly  relations  between  the  two  govern- 
ments, which  at  one  time  during  the  negotia- 
tions were  seriously  imperilled,  were  renewed, 
and  have  since  been  maintained.  After  two 
years'  residence  in  this  country,  Kwo  Sung-taou 
resigned  his  post,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marquis 
Ts'eng,*  .a  son  of  the  celebrated  soldier  and 
statesman,    Ts'eng  kwo-fan. 

JSoTE.— For  the  continuation  of  the  history  of  China,  up  to  the 
close  of  the  year,  1894,  see  Chapter  XX  at  end  of  book. 


♦Ambassador  to  France  during  the  Tonquin  difficulties  in  1884. 


CHAPTER  IT. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   CHINA. 


HINESE 

govern- 
mentmay 
be  d  e  - 
scribed  as 
being,  in 
theory,  a 
patriarch- 
al despot- 
ism. The 
emperor 
is  the  fa- 
^^     therofhis 


people,  and  as  in  a  family,  the  father's  law  is 
supreme,  so  the  emperor  exercises  complete  con- 
trol over  his  subjects,  even  to  the  extent  of 
holding,  under  certain  recognized  conditions, 
their   lives    in    his   hands,  but   from   time  imme- 

87 


88  The  Q-overnment  of  China. 

morial  it  has  been  held  by  the  highest  constitu- 
tional authorities,  by  Confucius  and  Mencius 
among  the  rest,  that  the  relations  existing  between 
the  emperor  and  his  people  are  reciprocal,  and 
that,  though  it  is  the  duty  of  the  people  to 
render  a  loyal  and  willing  obedience  to  the 
emperor  so  long  as  his  rule  is  just  and  benefi- 
cent, it  is  equally  incumbent  on  them  to  re- 
sist his  authority,  to  depose  him,  and  even  to 
put  him  to  death,  in  case  he  should  desert 
the   paths  of  rectitude  and  virtue. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  say  what  extent  of  power  the 
emperor  actually  wields.  The  outside  world 
sees  only  the  imperial  bolts,  but  how  they  are 
forged,  or  whose  is  the  hand  that  shoots  them, 
none  can  tell.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  un- 
usually able  men,  such  as  K'ang-he  (1661- 
1722)  and  K'een-lung  (1735-1795),  the  second  and 
fourth  rulers  of  the  present  dynasty,  their  in- 
fluence is  more  felt  than  that  of  less  energetic 
rulers ;  but  the  throne  of  China  is  so  hedged 
in  with  ceremonials,  and  so  padded  with  offi- 
cial etiquette,  that  unless  its  occupant  be  a  man 
of  supreme  ability,  he  cannot  fail  to  fall  under 
the    guidance    of    his    ministers     and    favorites. 


Duties  of  Viceroys.  89 

To  assist  him  in  the  goverumeut,  he  has  a 
council  of  state,  the  members  of  which,  five 
in  number,  daily  transact  the  business  of  the 
empire  in  the  imperial  presence,  between  the 
hours  of  four  and  six  in  the  morning.  Then 
there  are  tlie  Grand  Secretariat ;  the  Tsung-le 
Yamun,  or  Foreign  Office;  the  six  boards, 
viz. :  tlie  Le  poo,  or  Board  of  Civil  Office ; 
the  Hoo  poo,  or  Board  of  Revenue  ;  the  Li  poo, 
or  Board  of  Ceremonies  ;  the  Ping  poo,  or 
Board  of  War ;  the  Hing  poo,  or  Board  of 
Punishments ;  and  the  Kung  poo,  or  Board  of 
Works,  and  several  minor  offices,  all  charged 
with  the  superintendence  of  the  affairs  of  the 
eighteen  provinces  into  which  the  empire  is 
divided.  Fifteen  of  these  provinces' are  grouped 
into  eight  viceroyalties,  and  tlie  remaining  three 
are  administered  by  governors.  Each  province 
is  autonomous,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  supreme 
authorities,  whether  viceroys  or  governors,  are 
practically  independent  so  long  as  they  act  in 
accordance  witli  the  very  minute  regulations 
laid  down  for  their  guidance.  The  principal 
function  of  the  Peking  government  is  to  see 
that  these  regulations  are  carried  out,  and  in 
case    they  should   not   be,    to    call   the  offendinor 


90  The  Government  of  China. 

viceroy  or  governor  to  account.  Subordinate 
to  the  viceroys  are  the  governors  of  each 
province,  under  whom  again  are  intendants  of 
circuits ;  then  come  prefects  and  sub-prefects ; 
next  district  magistrates,  and  after  them,  a 
whole  host  of  petty  officials.  Each  viceroy 
raises  his  own  army  and  nav3',  which  he  pays, 
or  sometimes,  unfortunately,  does  not  pay,  out 
of  the  revenues  of  his  government.  He  levies 
his  owu  taxes,  and,  except  in  particular  cases, 
is  the  final  court  of  appeal  in  all  judicial 
matters  within  the  limits  of  his  rule.  In  re- 
turn for  this  latitude  allowed  him  he  is  held 
personally  responsible  for  the  good  government 
of  his  territory.  If  by  any  chance  serious  dis- 
turbances break  out  and  continue  unsuppressed, 
he  is  called  to  account  as  having  by  his  mis- 
conduct contributed  to  them,  and  he  in  his 
turn  looks  to  his  subordinates  to  maintain  order 
and  execute  justice-  within  their  jurisdictions. 
He  lias  no  power  to  remove  or  punish  sub- 
ordinate officials,  but  has  to  refer  all  complaints 
against  them  to  Peking.  The  personal  respon- 
sibility of  maintaining  order  makes  him  a  severe 
critic  of  those  who  serve  under  him,  and  the 
Peking    Gazette    bears  evidence  to  the  frequency 


"  Official  Purity  "  in   China.  91 

with  which  junior  officials  are  impeached  and 
punished  at  the  instigation  of  their  chiefs. 
The  following  decree,  which  appeared  in  the 
Peking  Gazette  of  the  thirteenth  of  September, 
1877,  furnishes  a  good  example  of  the  usual 
charges  and  customary  punishments  brought 
against  and  awarded  to  offending  officers :  — 
"  A  decree  based  upon  a  memorial  from  Le 
Han-chang,  viceroy  of  Hoo  Kwang,  and  Wan 
T'ung-tsioh,  governor  of  Hoopih,  who  have 
solicited  the  degradation  or  compulsory  retire- 
ment, respectivel}'',  of  certain  incapable  or  un- 
worthy officials.  In  the  case  of  Shoo  Tsaou, 
department  magistrate  of  Kiun  Chow,  declared 
to  be  wanting  in  natural  ability  and  shallow 
in  acquired  knowledge,  and  of  indifferent  repu- 
tation—  of  Le  Tsang-yaou,  district  magistrate 
of  E-ch'eng,  declared  to  have  set  official  pre- 
scription at  nought  in  his  business  arrange- 
ments, and  to  have  made  himself  unacceptable  to 
the  people — and  of  Niu  Fuh-kea,  declared  to 
be  inspired  with  a  false  and  treacherous  dis- 
position, and  to  have  employed  deceitful  repre- 
sentations in  his  transaction  of  affairs ;  the 
sentence  is  that  the  delinquents  be  forthwith 
stripped   of  their   rank  and  office.     Chang  Han, 


92  The   Government  of  China. 

sub-prefect  of  Han- Yang  foo,  being  decrepit 
from  age,  and  beyond  the  possibility  of  active 
exertion,   is   to   be    compulse lil}"   retired." 

Other  charges,  such  as  of  opium-smoking, 
misappropriation  of  public  moneys,  and  failure 
to  arrest  criminals,  meet  with  like  punishments. 
On  the  whole,  the  conduct  of  junior  officials 
is  carefully  watched ;  and  though  it  may  not 
unfrequently  happen  that  they  are  unjustly 
charged  with  offences,  their  causes  are,  when 
such  cases  become  apparent,  impartially  vindi- 
cated, and  their  accusers,  of  whatever  rank, 
are  brought  to  the  bar  of  justice.  Not  long 
since,  for  an  offence  of  tins  nature,  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  the  province  of  Honan  was 
dismissed  from  his  office,  and  the  governor 
was  degraded  three  degrees  of  rank  for  having 
countenanced    the   proceedings. 

As  has  been  already-  said;  the  affairs  of  each 
province  are  administered  by  the  viceroy  or 
governor  and  his  subordinates,  and,  speaking 
generally,  their  rule  is  as  enlightened  and  as 
just  as  could  be  expected  in  an  Oriental  coun- 
try where  public  opinion  finds  only  a  very 
imperfect  utterance.  Official  purity  and  justice 
must  be  treated  as  comparative  terms  in  China. 


Temptations  of  Office.  93 

The  constitution  of  the  civil  service  renders  it 
!;ext  to  impossible  that  any  office-holder  can 
be  clean-handed  in  the  European  sense.  The 
salaries  awarded  are  low,  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  necessary  expenses  pertaining  to  the 
offices  to  which  they  are  apportioned,  and  the 
consequence  is,  that  in  some  way  or  other  the 
officials  are  compelled  to  make  up  the  defi- 
ciency from  the  pockets  of  those  subject  to 
them.  Every  legal  precaution  is  taken  to  pre- 
vent this  nefarious  system,  with  the  exception 
of  the  only  one  which  might  be  expected  to 
put  a  stop  to  it.  All  appointments  are  tena- 
ble for  three  years  only,  so  that  the  holders 
of  office  .  are  naturally  anxious  to  gain  and 
keep  the  esteem  and  approval  of  their  superiors, 
and  so  to  administer  affairs  as  not  to,  raise 
audible  discontent  among  the  people.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  reg- 
ulation is  apt  to  tempt  a  greedy  and  unscru- 
pulous mandarin  to  make  the  most  he  can  from 
each  district  '  over  which  he  may  hold  these 
short  terms  of  office.  No  mandarin  'is  allowed 
to  take  office  in  his  native  province,  and  no 
relation,  or  even  connection,  is  allowed  to  serve 
under   him.     How  stringent  tliis  rule  is  appears 


94  The.   Government  of  China, 

from  an  edict  lately  published  in  the  Peking 
Gazette^  in  which  the  governor  of  the  province 
of  Kwei-chovv  was  rebuked  for  not  having 
reported  to  the  throne  that  he  was  about  to 
connect  himself  with  the  family  of  an  intend- 
ant  of  circuit  in  the  same  province  by  the 
betrothal  of  his  third  son  to  the  intendant's 
second  daughter.  In  consequence  of  the  pro- 
posed alliance  the  ambitious  intendant  was 
ordered  to  another  province.  All  such  regula- 
tions are  powerless  to  prevent  extortion  in  face 
of  a  positive  necessity,  and  it  would  be  just 
as  useful  to  decree  that  black  should  be  hence- 
forth white,  as  that  men  whose  salaries  are 
insufficient  to  pay  the  wages  of  their  under- 
lings, should  hold  off  their  hands  when  abun- 
dance  is   within   their   reach. 

As  a  rule  mandarins  seldom  enter  office  with 
private  fortunes,  and  the  wealth,  therefore,  which 
soothes  the  declining  years  of  veteran  officials 
may  be  fairly  assumed  to  be  ill-gotten  gain. 
A  remarkable  instance  of  a  fortune  thus  acquired, 
and  of  t?He  retributive  "fleecing"  which  is  not 
unfrequently  inflicted  on  the  possessors  of  such 
plunder,  occurred  in  the  case  of  Hang  Ke, 
who   was   superintendent   of  customs  at  Canton 


The    Victors  take  the  Spoils.  95 

prior  to  the  year  1859,  when  he  resigned  office. 
This  man's  salary  was  twenty-four  hundred 
taels,  or  about  four  thousand  dollars  a  year ; 
the  necessary  expenses  of  his  yamun,  or  official 
residence,  were  about  eight  thousand  taels  per 
month,  and  yet,  when  he  resigned  his  seals  of 
office,  he  retired  with  a  fortune  of  three  hun- 
dred thousand  taels,  or  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars.  As  is  not  unusually  the  case  when  a 
high  official  retires  from  his  post,  more  espe- 
cially if  he  is  believed  to  have  made  money. 
Hang  Ke  was  ordered  to  Peking,  and  before 
he  had  been  many  days  in  the  capital,  one 
third  of  the  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  members  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Well  may  we  ask.  Who  will  watch 
the  watchmen?  But  the  old  proverb,  that  one 
man  may  steal  a  horse,  and  another  man  may 
not  look  over  the  fence,  is  peculiarly  true  in 
regard  to  official  extortion  in  China,  as  many 
less  discreet  men  than  Hang  Ke  have  found 
to  their  cost.  Not  long  since  a  district  mag- 
istrate in  the  province  of  Kwei-chow  was  put 
to  death  by  strangulation  for  having  levied  an 
illegal  assessment  of  six  thousand  and  fifty  taels 
only  from   certain  communes  of  the    Meaou-tsze 


96  The   Government  of  China. 

aborigines  within  liis  district.  The  immunity 
which  some  mandarins  enjoy  from  the  just  con- 
sequences of  their  crimes,  and  the  severit}-  with 
which  the  law  is  vindicated  in  the  cases  of 
others  for  much  lighter  offences,  has  a  sinister 
aspect ;  but  in  a  system  of  which  briber}^  and 
corruption  practically  form  a  part,  one  need  not 
expect  to  find  purity  in  any  direction,  and  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  whole  civil 
service  is,  judged  by  American  standards,  cor- 
rupt to  the  core.  The  people,  however,  are 
very  lightly  taxed,  and  they  readil}'"  submit  to 
limited  extortion  so  long  as  the  rule  of  the 
mandarins  is  otherwise  just  and  beneficent. 
How  rarely  a  mandarin  earns  the  respect  and 
affection  of  the  people  is  obvious  from  the  great 
parade  which  is  made  on  the  departure  from 
their  posts  of  the  very  occasional  officials  who 
are  fortunate  enough  to  have  earned  it.  Arch- 
deacon Gray  states  in  his  "  China "  that  du- 
ring his  residence  of  a  quarter  of  a  centurj-  at 
Canton,  he  met  one  man  only  who  had  entitled 
himself  to  the  regret  of  the  people  at  his 
departure.  On  his  leaving"  the  city,  the  inhabi- 
tants rose  en  masse  to  do  him  honor.  "  In 
the   imposing   procession  which   escorted  him  to 


A  Bright  Particular  Star. 


97 


the   place    of    embarkation,  and   which    took   at 
least    twenty   minutes    to    pass    a    given    point* 


A    MANDARIN  IN   HIS   SEDAN   CHAIR. 


were   carried  the  silk  umbrellas  which  had  been 
presented   to  him   by   the   people,   and    the    red 


98  The   Government  of  China, 

boards  —  of  which  there  were  probably  three 
hundred — upon  which  high-sounding  titles  had 
been  inscribed  in  honor  of  the  faithful  minister. 
The  route  was  spanned  at  frequent  intervals 
by  arches.  From  these  banners  were  suspended 
which  bore,  in  large  letters,  painted  or  embroi- 
dered, such  sentences  as  '  The  Friend  of  the 
People;'  'The  Father  of  the  People;'  'The 
Bright  Star  of  the  Province ; '  '  The  Benefactor 
of  the  Age.'  Deputations  awaited  his  arrival 
at  various  temples,  and  he  alighted  from  his 
chair  to  exchange  compliments  with  them,  and 
to  partake  of  the  refreshments  provided  for  the 
occasion;  but  the  formal  arrangements  could 
not  speak  so  clearly  to  his  popularity  as  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  people.  The  silence  gener- 
ally observed  when  a  Chinese  ruler  passes 
through  the  streets  was  again  and  again  broken 
by  hearty  exclamations  of  'When  will  your 
Excellency  come  back  to  us?'  At  many  points 
the  crowd  was  so  great  as  to  interrupt  the 
line  of  march,  and  the  state  chair  was  fre- 
quently  in   danger   of  being   upset." 

A  somewhat  similar  scene  occurred  at  T'ien- 
tsin,  in  the  year  1861,  on  the  departure  of  the 
prefect   of  tliat   city.     The   people   accompanied 


The  Imperial  CensorB.  99 

him  beyond  the  gate,  on  his  road  to  Peking, 
with  every  token  of  honor,  and  finally  begged 
from  him  his  boots,  which  they  carried  back 
in  triumph,  and  hung  up  as  a  memento  of 
their  hero  in  the  temple  of  the  city  god.  Going 
to  the  opposite  extreme,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  people,  goaded  into  rebellion  by  a 
sense  of  wrong,  rise  in  arms  against  some  par- 
ticularly obnoxious  mandarin  and  drive  him 
from  the  district.  Chinamen  are  essentially  un*- 
warlike,  and  it  needs  some  act  of  gross  oppres- 
sion  to    stir    their    blood    to    fever   heat. 

A  potent  means  of  protection  against  oppres- 
sion is  granted  to  the  people  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  imperial  censors  throughout  the  empire, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  report  to  the  throne  all  cases 
of  misrule,  injustice,  or  neglect  on  the  part  of 
the  mandarins  wiiich  come  to  their  knowledge. 
The  same  tolerance  which  is  shown  by  the 
people  towards  the  shoi^t-comings  and  ill-deeds 
of  the  officials,  is  displayed  by  these  men  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties.-  Only  aggravated 
cases  make  them  take  their  pens  in  hand,  but 
when  they  do  it  must  be  confessed  that  they 
show  little  mercy.  Neither  are  they  respecters 
of  persons ;     their    lash    falls    on    all    alike,  from 


100  The   Government  of  China. 

the  emperor  on  his  throne  to  the  police-run- 
ners in  magisterial  courts.  Nor  is  tlieir  plain 
speaking  more  amazing  than  the  candor  with 
which  their  memorials  affecting  the  characters 
of  great  and  small  alike  are  published  in  the 
Peking  Gazette.  The  gravest  charges,  such  as 
of  peculation,  neglect  of  dut)',  injustice,  or  in- 
competence, are  brought  against  mandarins  of 
all  ranks,  and  are  openly  published  in  the 
official  paper.  No  doubt  it  is  intended  that 
the  lesson  implied  by  these  publications  should 
have  a  salutary  effect  on  the  official  readers, 
but  their  constant  recurrence  tends  to  lessen 
their  value,  and  thus  they  probably  serve  less 
as  warnings  against  wrong-doing  than  as  hints 
of  what  particular  evil  practices  to  avoid,  and 
especially  of  the  unwisdom  of  falling  out  with 
a   censor. 

In  the  administration  of  justice,  the  same  lax 
morality  as  in  other  branches  of  government 
exists,  and  bribery  is  largely  resorted  to  by 
litigants,  especially  in  civil  cases.  As  a  rule, 
money  in  excess  of  the  legal  fees  has,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  be  paid  to  the  clerks  and 
secretaries  before  a  case  can  be  put  down  for 
hearing,  and  the  decibion  of  the   presiding  man- 


Refinements  of  Cruelty. 


101 


darin  is  too  often  influenced  by  the  sums  of 
money  which  find  their  way  into  his  purse  from 
tlie  pockets  of  eitlier  suitor.  But  the  greatest 
blot  on  Chinese  administration  is  the  inhumanity 
shown    to    both    culprits   and  witnesses   in  crim- 


THE   BASTINADO. 


inal  procedure.  Tortures  of  the  most  painful 
and  revolting  kind  are  used  to  extort  evidence, 
and  punishments  scarcely  more  severely  cruel  are 
inflicted  on  the  guilty  parties.  Flogging  with 
bamboos   on    the    hind    part    of    the    thighs,    or 


102  The   Government  of  China, 

between  the  shoulders,  beating  the  jaws  with 
thick  pieces  of  leather,  or  the  ankles  with  a 
stick,  are  some  of  the  preliminary  tortures  ap- 
plied to  witnesses  or  culprits  who  refuse  to 
give  the  evidence  expected  of  them.  Further 
refinements  of  cruelty  are  reserved  for  hard- 
ened offenders,  by  means  of  which  infinite  pain, 
and  often  permanent  injury,  are  inflicted  on  the 
knee-joints,  fingers,  ankles,  etc.  Occasionally 
the  tortures  pass  the  limits  of  endurance,  and 
death  releases  the  victim  from  his  miseries ;  but 
as  a  rule,  in  the  "  severe  question,"  life  is  pre- 
served, but  at  the  expense  of  crippled  limbs. 
The  Turanians  -are  so  obtuse-nerved  by  nature 
that  they  probably  do  not  feel  pain  as  acutely 
as  more  sensitive  races,  and  their  nerves  sur- 
vive shocks  which  would  prove  fatal  to  a  more 
finely  organized  people.  It  is  this  which  en- 
ables them  to  pass  through  the  horrors  of  the 
torture-chamber  alive.  It  must  of  course  be 
understood  that  though  these  tortures  are  un- 
fortunately common,  their  intensity,  and  even 
their  use,  vary  with  the  disposition  of  each 
mandarin  in  wliose  power  it  is  to  inflict  them. 
To  many,  no  doubt,  their  employment  is  as 
repugnant  as  it  would   be  to  an  English  judge. 


Horrible   Executions.  lOS 

but  to  have  to  look  for  mercy  on  the  chance 
that  the  presiding,  mandarin  will  be  of  a  kindly 
disposition,  is  a  poor  security  for  those  who 
enter   a   criminal    court. 

It  follows,  as  a  natural  consequence,  that  in 
a  country  where  torture  is  thus  resorted  to 
the  punishments  inflicted  on  criminals  must  be 
proportionately  cruel.  Death,  the  final  punish- 
ment, can  unfortunately  be  inflicted  in  various 
ways,  and  a  sliding  scale  of  such  executions 
is  used  by  the  Chinese  to  mark  their  sense  of  the 
varying  heinousness  of  murderous  crimes.  For 
parricide,  matricide,  and  wholesale  murders,  the 
usual  sentence  is  that  of  Ling  ehe,  or  "  igno- 
minious and  slow  "  death.  In  the  carrying  out 
of  this  sentence,  the  cnlprit  is  fastened  to  a 
cross,  and  cuts,  varying  in  number,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  judge,  from  eight  to  a  hundred 
and  twenty,  are  made  first  on  the  face  and 
fleshy  parts  of  the  body,  next  the  heart  is 
pierced,  and  finally,  when  death  has  been  thus 
caused,  the  limbs  are  separated  from  the  body 
and  divided.  During  the  year  1877,  ten  cases 
in  which  this  punishment  was  inflicted  were 
reported  in  the  Peking  Gazette^  in  one  of 
which,   shocking  to   say,  a   lunatic  was  the  suf- 


104  The   Government  of  China. 

ferer,  a  circumstance  which  adds  a  weird  hor- 
ror to  the  ghastly  scene.  In  ordinary  cases  of 
capital  punishment  execution  by  beheading  is 
the  common  mode.  This  is  a  speedy  and 
merciful  death,  the  skill  gained  by  frequent 
experience  enabling  the  e^iecutioner  in  ahnost 
every  case  to  perform  his  task  in  one  blow. 
On  one  occasion,  the  author  saw  thirty-six  men 
beheaded  at  Canton,  for  robbery  with  violence. 
Two  executioners  were  employed,  and  they  fin- 
ished their  task  in  less  than  two  minutes, 
neitiier  of  them  having  once  failed  to  sever 
the    head   from    the   body   at   tlie   first  stroke. 

Another  death,  which  is  less  horrible  to  China- 
nien,  who  view  any  mutilation  of  the  body  as 
an  extreme  disgrace,  is  by  strangulation.  '  The 
privilege  of  so  passing  out  of  the  world  is 
accorded  at  times  to  influential  criminals,  whose 
crimes  are  not  of  so  heinous  a  nature  as  de- 
mands their  decapitation  ;  and  occasionally  they 
are  even  allowed  to  be  their  own  executioners. 
In  the  year  1861,  a  prince  of  the  blood  who 
had  been  found  guilty  of  treason,  had  this  favor 
extended  to  him.  The  "silken  cord"  was  sent 
to  him  in  his  cell  in  the  Board  of  Punish- 
ments,   and    he     was    left    to    consummate    his 


Judge  Lynch.  105 

own  doom,  but  his  nerve  forsook  him  and  the 
jailers  were  ultimately  compelled  to  carry  out 
the   sentence   of   the    law. 

Other  and  summary  extra-judicial  executions 
are  carried  out  b}'  the  people  with  the  silent 
consent  of  the  officials  in  the  case  of  kid- 
nappers and  others  taken  red-handed,  and  their 
nature  is,  to  a  great  extent,  moulded  by  cir- 
cumstances. If  a  river  should  be  close  at  hand, 
the  probability  is  that  the  criminal  would  be 
thrown,  bound,  into  the  water;  but  the  more 
common  mode  of  Ij'ucliing  is  to  bind  the  con- 
demned wretch  to  a  cross  and  to  strangle  him 
with  a  cord  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  cross, 
at  the  back  of  his  neck.  It  is  a  fortunate 
provision  of  nature  that  the  fear  of  death 
diminishes  in  direct  ratio  to  the  frequency  of 
its  probable  incidence.  Times  of  war  and  of 
political  disturbance,  when  the  sword  is  bare 
and  the  executioner's  hands  are  full,  are  gen- 
erally times  of  reckless  gayety  and  thoughtless 
living,  and  so  in  countries  such  as  China, 
where  human  life  possesses,  neither  in  the  eyes 
of  the  judges  nor  of  the  people,  the  sacred- 
ness  with  which  it  is  viewed  in  Europe,  the 
people,   far   from    being    weighed    down    with   a 


,  106  The   Government  of  China. 

sense  of  the  possible  nearness  of  death,  learn 
to  look  on  its  imminence  with  indifference  and 
to  despise  its  terrors.  The  uncertainty  also 
which  surrounds  the  fate  of  the  condemned 
malefactor  is  apt  to  encourage  a  hope  that 
fortune  may  be  kinder  to  him  than  the  judge, 
for  it  by  no  means  follows  that  every  man 
upon  whom  sentence  of  death  is  passed  finds 
his  waj"^  to  the  execution  ground.  The  lists  of 
condemned  criminals  are  sent  at  stated  times 
from  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  Peking,  and 
the  Emperor,  guided  pretty  much  by  chance, 
marks  with  a  red  pencil  the  names  of  a  cer- 
tain proportion  on  whom  it  is  liis  imperial 
will  that  the  sentence  of  the  law  should  be 
carried  out  at  the  approaching  jail  delivery. 
On  the  morning  of  the  day  fixed  for  the  exe- 
cution, the  jailer  enters  the  prison  and  reads 
out  the  names  of  the  unfortunate  ones,  who 
are  then  taken  before  the  judge  to  be  offici- 
ally identified,  after  which  tliey  are  allowed  a 
meal,  which  is  supplied  either  by  their  friends 
or  the  prison  authorities,  mainly  consisting,  as 
a  rule,  of  some  narcotic,  and  are  finally  car- 
ried off  to  the  execution  ground.  The  names 
of  those    left   in    prison  are   sent  up    to   Peking 


Loathsome  Dungeons.  107 

with  the  next  batch,  and  those  who  are  lucky 
enough  to  escape  the  vermilion  pencil  two  or 
three  times  are  generally  sent  off  into  banish- 
ment for  life.  In  the  old  days,  when  the 
great  wall  was  building,  such  criminals  were 
sent  to  work  at  that  huge  undertaking,  but 
since  that  time  they  have  been  banished  be- 
yond the  frontiers  into  either  Mongolia  or 
Manchuria:  It  may  be  that  in  some  cases  the 
indifference  with  which  criminals  leave  their 
cells  for  the  execution  ground  is  to  be  traced 
to  the  supreme  misery  of  their  prison  life, 
and  to  any  one  who  has  visited  a  Chinese 
prison  this  indifference  is  not  surprising.  Asi- 
atics are  almost  invariably  careless  about  the 
sufferings  of  others,  and  Chinamen  are  no  ex- 
ception to  the  rule.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
exaggerate  the  horrors  of  a  Chinese  prison. 
The  filth  and  dirt  of  the  rooms,  the  brutality 
of  the  jailers,  the  miserable  diet,  and  the  en- 
tire absence  of  the  commonest  sanitary  arrange- 
ments, make  a  picture  too  horrible  to  draw  in 
detail.  During  the  war  of  1860,  as  before 
stated,  two  Englishmen,  Sir  Harry  Parkes  and 
Mr.  Loch,  were  treacherously  taken  prisoners, 
and   were  confined   in   the  prison   of  the  Board 


108  The   Government  of  China. 

of  Punishments  at  Peking.  The  extraordinary 
fortitude  of  these  men  and  the  horrors  of  their 
surroundings  may  be  imagined  from  the  follow- 
Mng  passages  from  Mr.  Loch's  "Narrative  of 
Events  in  China": — "The  discipline  of  the 
prison  was  in  itself  not  very  strict,  and  had  it 
not  been  for  the  starvation,  the  pain  arising 
from  the  cramped  position  in  which  tlie  chains 
and  ropes  retained  the  arms  and  legs,  with  the 
heavy  drag  of  tlie  iron  collar  on  the  bones  of 
the  spine,  and  the  creeping  vermin  that  in- 
fested evev}^  place,  together  with  the  occasional 
beatings  and  tortures  which  the  prisoners  were 
from  time  to  time  taken  away  for  a  few  hours 
to  endure  —  returning  with  bleeding  legs  and 
bodies,  and  so  weak  as  to  be  scarce  able  to 
crawl  —  there  was  no  very  great  hardship  to 
be  endured  .  .  .  There  is  a  small  maggot 
which  appears  to  infest  all  Chinese  prisons ; 
the  earth  at  the  depth  of  a  few  inches  swarms 
with  them  ;  they  are  the  scourge  most  dreaded 
by  every  poor  prisoner.  Few  enter  a  Chinese 
goal  who  have  not  on  their  bodies  or  limbs 
some  wounds,  either  inflicted  by  blows  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected,  or  caused  by 
the  manner   in   which    they   have    been   bound; 


A    PRISONER    IX    THE    CAXqUE. 


109 


A  Canton  Prison.  Ill 

the  instinct  of  the  insect  to  which  I  allude 
appears  to  lead  him  direct  to  these  wounds. 
Bound  and  helpless,  the  poor  wretch  cannot 
save  himself  from  their  approach,  although  he 
knows  full  well  that  if  they  once  succeed  in 
reaching  his  lacerated  skin  there  is  the  cer- 
tainty of  a  fearful,  lingering,  and  agonizing 
death  before  him."  In  the  provincial  prisons 
the  condition  of  the  wretched  culprits  is  even 
worse  than  in  those  of  the  Board  of  Punishments. 
Those  who  were  present  at  the  first  inspection 
of  the  Canton  prisons  after  the  taking  of  that 
city  in  1859,  will  never  forget  the  sight  which 
met  their  gaze.  As  the  wretched  creatures 
were  dragged  out  to  the  light  of  day,  and  the 
full  horror  of  their  condition  became  apparent, 
English  soldiers  who  were  present  wept  as 
they  had  not  wept  since  they  were  children, 
at  the  sight  of  such  unutterable  suiEfering. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
Canton  prisons  are  not  typical  of  others 
throughout  the  empire ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
gross  neglect  and  abominable  cruelty  of  magis- 
trates and  jailers  which  are  occasionallj'^  shown 
up  in  the  Peking  Gazette  point  to  the  con- 
clusion  that  other  jails   are   as    foul,  and  other 


112  The  Government  of  China. 

warders  are  as  brutal  even,  as  those  of  Canton. 
Chinese  law-givers  have  distinguished  in  a 
marked  manner  between  crimes  accompanied 
and  unaccompanied  with  violence.  For  offences 
of  the  latter  description  punishments  of  a  com-- 
paratively  light  nature  are  inflicted,  sucli  as 
wearing  the  wooden  collar,  known  among  Euro- 
peans as  the  canque,  and  piercing  the  ears 
with  arrows,  to  the  ends  of  which  are  attached 
slips  of  paper  on  which  are  inscribed  the  crime 
of  which  the  culprit  has  been  guilty.  Fre- 
quently the  criminals,  bearing  these  signs  of 
their  disgrace,  are  paraded  up  and  down  the 
street  where  their  offence  was  committed,  and 
sometimes,  in  more  serious  cases,  they  are  flogged 
through  the  leading  thoroughfares  of  tlie  cit^', 
preceded  by  a  herald,  who  announces  the  na- 
ture of  their  misdemeanors.  To  give  a  list  of 
Chinese  punishments  would  show  that  the  inge- 
nuity of  man  to  torture  his  fellow-creatures 
has  been  exhausted  by  them.  The  subject  is 
horrible,  and  it  is  a  relief  to  turn  from  the 
dingy  prison  gates  and  the  halls  of  so-called 
justice    to-  the   family   life   of  the   people. 


CHAPTER   III. 


MARRIAGE. 


'E  have  said  that  the  goy- 
erument  of  the  empire  is 
modelled  on  the  govern- 
ment of  a  household,  and  at 
the  root  of  all  family  ties, 
says  one  of  the  Chinese 
classics,  is  the  relation  of 
husband  and  wife,  which 
is  as  the  relation  of  heaven 
and  earth.  Chinese  histo- 
rians state  that  the  rite 
of  marriage  was  first  insti- 
tuted by  the  Emperor  Fuh-he,  who  reigned  in 
the  twenty-eightli  century  b.  c,  and  who  or- 
dained, as  a  preliminary,  that  the  intending 
bridegroom  should  present  his  future  bride  a 
pair  of  prepared  skins  as  an  earnest  of  their 
engagement.     There    is    abundant    evidence     to 

Q  113 


114  Marriage. 

show  that  before  this  period,  as  indeed  among 
all  other  peoples,  the  first  form  of  marriage  in 
China  was  by  capture.  The  modern  character 
cA'w,  meaning  to  marr}*,  is  said  to  bear  in  its 
construction  a  reference  to  this  old  practice, 
made  up  as  it  is  of  an  ear,  a  hand,  and  a 
woman,  thus  commemorating  the  custom  of 
bringing  in  captives  by  the  ear,  as  is  still  done 
by  Chinese  soldiers  in  time  of  war.  On  the 
evening  of  the  marriage  the  Chinese  bridegroom 
either  goes  himself  or  sends  a  friend  to  bring 
his  bride  to  his  house,  but  always  after  dark, 
as  if  by  stealth,  and  the  ceremony,  such  as  it 
is,  is  performed  in  his  house.  In  the  same 
'  way,  but  in  a  more  primitive  form,  we  find 
the  bridegroom  among  a  northern  Mongolian 
tribe  chasing  his  bride  through  the  compart- 
ments of  her  father's  tent,  while  old  women 
go  through  the  form  of  tripping  him  up  and 
otherwise  hindering  him  in  his  pursuit ;  and 
among  some  Central  Asiatic  tribes  the  bride- 
groom chases  his  wife  on  horseback ;  but  whether 
the  pursuit  is  in  a  Siberian  tent  or  on  a  Cen- 
tral Asiatic  steppe,  the  result  is  the  same,  the 
bride  gives  in  at  last,  and  becomes  the  prop- 
erty of  her  pursuer.     Among  ourselves,  no  doubt, 


Chasing  and  Tripping.  115 

the  practice  of  a  bridegroom  going  to  take 
over  his  bride  accompanied  by  a  "  best  man," 
is  a  survival  from  the  time  when  men  took 
their  wives  by  force,  and  the  bridesmaids  of 
the  present  day  represent  the  defenders  of 
their   fortunate  or    unfortunate    sister. 

At  the  present  day  marriage  is  probably 
more  nearly  universal  in  China  than  in  any 
other  civilized  country  in  the  world.  It  is 
regarded  as  something  indispensable,  and  few 
men  pass  the  age  of  twenty  without  taking  a 
wife.  Chinese  legislators  have  at  all  times 
encouraged  early  marriages  as  having  a  pacify- 
ing efiect  upon  the  people.  A  man  who  has 
given  hostages  to  fortune  in  the  shape  of  wife 
and  children  has  a  greater  inducement  to  fol- 
low the  paths  of  steady  industry,  and  is  less 
likely  to  throw  in  his  lot  with  brigands  and 
rebels,  than  a  man  who  has  but  himself  to 
thin]  of,  and  is  without  any  immediate  ties. 
Besides  this  the  Chinese  believe,  in  common 
with  the  ancient  Greeks,  that  the  shades  of 
the  unburied  wander  restlessly  about  without 
gaining  admittance  into  Hades ;  so  that  non- 
burial  came  to  be  considered  by  them  the  most 
deplorable   calamity   that   could   befall   one,  and 


116  Marriage. 

the  discharge  of  the  last  service  a  most  holy- 
duty.  To  die,  therefore,  without  leaving  behind 
a  son  to  perform  the  burial  rites,  and  to  offer 
up  the  fixed  periodical  sacrifices  at  the  tomb, 
is  one  of  the  most  direful  fates  tliat  can  over- 
take a  Cliinaman,  and  he  seeks  to  avoid  it  by 
an  early  marriage.  The  gods,  we  are  told, 
bestow  not  on  men  all  their  gifts  at  once,  and 
it  sometimes  happens  that  the  desired  object  is 
not  obtained.  As  it  was  among  the  ancient 
Jews,  the  necessit}'-  of  securing  an  lieir  is  of 
so  vital  importance  that  in  such  cases  the  first 
wife  has  not  unfrequently  to  make  way  for  a 
second,  and  the  practice  of  adoption  conies  to 
the  relief  of  those  to  whom  children  are  hope- 
lessly denied.  The  Chinese,  however,  being 
monogamists,  it  is  necessary  that,  before  taking 
another  M'ife,  a  man  should  divorce  the  exist- 
ing one.  This  is  not  a  difficult  process,  since 
any  one  of  the  seven  pleas  for  divorce  spoken 
of  later  on,  would  be  enough  for  his  purpose. 
Like  every  other  rite  in  China,  that  of  mar- 
riage is  fenced  in  with  a  host  of  ceremonies. 
In  a  vast  majority  of  cases  a  bridegroom  never 
sees  his  bride  until  the  wedding  night,  it  be- 
ing  considered  a   grave   breach  of  etiquette  for 


Pre-marital  Etiquette.  119 

young  men  and  maidens  to  associate  together 
or  even  to  see  one  another.  Of  course  it  does 
occasionally  happen  that  either  by  stealth  or 
by  chance  a  pair  become  acquainted;  but 
whether  they  have  thus  associated  or  whether 
they  are  perfect  strangers,  the  first  formal  over- 
ture must  of  necessity  be  made  by  a  go-between, 
who,  having  received  a  commission  from  the 
parents  of  the  young  man,  proceeds  to  the 
house  of  the  lady  ancl,  makes  a  formal  proposal 
on  behalf  of  the  would-be  bridegroom's  parents. 
If  the  young  lady's  father  approve  the  pro- 
posed alliance,  the  suitor  sends  the  lady  some 
presents  as  an  earnest  *of  his  intention.  The 
parents  next  exchange  documents,  which  set 
forth  the  hour,  day,  month,  and  3'ear  when  the 
young  people  were  born,  and  the  maiden  names 
of  their  mothers.  Astrologers  are  then  called 
in  to  cast  the  horoscopes,  and  should  these  be 
favorable,  the  engagement  is  formally  entered 
into,  but  not  so  irrevocably  that  there  are  not 
left  several  orthodox  ways  of  breaking  it  off. 
If,  for  instance,  a  china  bowl  should  be  broken, 
or  an  article  be  lost  in  the  house  of  either 
within  three  days  of  the  engagement,  the  cir- 
cumstance  is    considered    to    be   sufficiently   un- 


120  Marriage. 

lucky  to  warrant  the  instant  termination  of  the 
negotiations.  Should  things  go  smoothly  the 
bridegroom's  father  writes  a  formal  letter  of 
agreement  to  the  lady's  father,  accompanied  by 
presents,  consisting  in  some  cases  of  sweetmeats 
and  a  live  pig,  and  in  others  of  a  goose  and 
a  gander,  which  are  regarded  as  emblems  of 
conjugal  fidelity.  At  the  same  time  the  bride- 
groom prepares  two  large  cards,  on  which  are 
written  the  particulars  of  the  engagement.  On 
the  outer  side  of  the  one  which  he  keeps  is 
pasted  a  paper  Dragon,  and  on  the  outside  of  the 
other,  which  is  seat  to  the  lady,  appears  a 
Phcenix.  Each  card  is  adorned  with  two  pieces 
of  .  red  silk,  which  have  their  origin  in  the 
following  legend : — "  In  the  time  of  the  T'ang 
dynasty — that  is  to  say,  about  a  thousand 
years  ago  —  a  man  named  Hwuy  Ko  while 
staying  in  the  town  of  Sung  met  an  old  man 
reading  a  book  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  In 
answer  to  Hwuy's  inquiring  look,  the  old  man 
said,  '  This  is  the  register  of  the  engage- 
ments for  all  marriages  under  heaven,  and  in 
my  pocket  I  have  red  cords  with  which  I  con- 
nect the  feet  of  those  who  are  to  become  hus- 
band   and    wife.      When    these    cords    are   once 


Red  Silk  and   Wedding   Cards.  121 

tied  nothing '  on  earth  can  change  the  destiny 
of  the  parties.  Your  future  wife,'  added  he, 
'is  the  child  of  the  old  woman  who  sells  veg- 
etables in  yonder  shop  in  the  north  of  the 
town.'  Upon  hearing  this,  Hwuy  hurried  off 
to  the  vegetable  shop,  and  found  the  woman 
in  charge  possessed  of  such  a  hideous  little 
infant  of  about  a  year  old,  that  in  his  despair 
he  hired  a  man  to  kill  the  child.  Years  after- 
wards the  prefect  of  the  town  where  Hwuy 
Ko  then  lived,  gave  him  in  marriage  a  beau- 
tiful young  lady  whom  he  affirmed  was  his 
own  daughter.  Seeing  that  his  bride  always 
wore  an  artificial  flower  over  one  of  her  eye- 
brows, Hwuy  Ku  asked  her  the  reason  of  her 
doing  so.  '  I  am  the  daughter,'  replied  she, 
'  of  the  prefect's  brother  who  died  at  Sung 
when  I  was  an  infant,  leaving  me  to  the  care 
of  an  old  woman  who  sold  vegetables.  One 
day  when  I  was  out  with  her  in  the  street  a 
ruffian  struck  me  on  my  forehead,  and  made 
such  a  scar  that  I  am  obliged  to  wear  this 
flower  to  hide  the  mark."  "  Hwuy  Ko  then 
recognized  the  immutability  of  fate,  and  from 
that  day  to  this  red  silk  has  been  entwined 
in    the    marriage   cards    of   ever}'    pair   in   China. 


122 


Marriage. 


Following  on  the  exchange  of  these  cards, 
presents  varying  according  to  the  rank  and 
fortune  of  the  suitor  are  vicariously  presented 
by  him  to  the  lad}'.  Recourse  is  then  again 
had    to   astrologers   to   fix   a   fortunate    day   for 


A   BRIDAT-  PROCESSION. 


the  final  ceremony,  on  the  evening  of  which 
the  bridegroom's  best  man  proceeds  to  the 
house  of  the  lady  and  conducts  her  to  her 
future  home  in  a  red  sedan-chair,  accompanied 
by    musicians    who  —  as     in    ancient    Athens  — 


CHINESE     BRIDE    AND    GROOM. 


At  the  Husband's  Door.  125 

enliven  the  procession  with  wedding  airs.  At 
the  door  of  the  house  the  bride  alights  from 
her  sedan,  and  is  lifted  over  a  pan  of  burn- 
ing charcoal,  or  a  red-hot  coulter,  laid  on  the 
threshold  by  two  "women  of  luck,"  whose  hus- 
#  bands  and  children  must  be  living.  Sir  John 
Lubbock  states  that  this  ceremony  of  lifting  a 
bride  over  the  threshold  exists  in  the  four  con- 
tinents, and  we  know  that  in  ancient  Rome 
the  bridegroom  received  his  bride  with  fire  and 
water,  and  presented  these  two  elements  to  her 
touch. 

No  full  explanation  has  been  given  of  this 
curiously  universal  practice,  but  it  may  possi- 
bly be  useful  as  conveying  a  hint  to  the  lady 
that  for  the  future  she  should  stay  at  home 
and  not  face  the  dangers  of  re-crossing  the 
threshold.* 

In  the  reception-room  the  bridegroom  awaits 
his  bride  on  a  raised  dais,  at  the  foot  of  which 
she  humbly  prostrates  herself.  He  then  descends 
to  her  level,  and,  removing  her  veil,  gazes  on 
her  face  for  the  first  time.  Without  exchang- 
ing a  word  they  seat  themselves  side  bj'  side, 
and    each  tries    to    sit   on    a    part   of    the   dress 

*  It  is  also  said  in  explanation  that  the  fire  serves  to  purge  away  evil  spirits. 


126  Marriage. 

of  the  other,  it  being  considered  that  the  one 
wlio  succeeds  in  so  doing  will  hold  rule  in 
the  household.  This  trial  of  skill  over,  the 
pair  proceed  to  the  hall,  and  there  before  the 
family  altar  worship  heaven  and  earth  and  their 
ancestors.  They  then  go  to  dinner  in  their 
apartment,  through  the  open  door  of  which 
the  guests  scrutinize  and  make  their  remarks 
on  the  appearance  and  demeanor  of  the  bride. 
This  ordeal  is  the  more  trying  to  her  since 
etiquette  forbids  her  to  eat  anything  —  a  pro- 
hibition which  is  not  sliared  by  the  bridegroom, 
who,  to  the  extent  of.  his  appetite,  enjoys  the 
dainties  provided.  The  attendants  next  hand 
to  each  in  turn  a  cup  of  wine,  and,  having 
exchanged  pledges,  the  wedding  ceremonies  come 
to  an  end.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it 
is  customary  for  the  bride  to  sit  up  late  into 
the  night  answering  riddles  which  are  pro- 
pounded to  her  by  the  guests ;  in  other  parts 
it  is  usual  for  her  to  show  herself  for  a 
time  in  the  hall,  whither  her  husband  does  not 
accompany  her,  as  it  is  contrarj'  to  etiquette 
for  a  husband  and  wife  ever  to  appear  together 
in  public.  For  the  same  reason  she  goes  to 
pay  the   customary  visit   to   her  parents   on  the 


Women  difficult  to  Manage.  127 

third  day  after  the  wedding  alone,  and  for  the 
rest  of  her  wedded  life  she  enjoys  the  society 
of  her  husband  only  in  the  privacy  of  her 
apartments. 

The  lives  of  women  in  China,  and  especially 
of  married  women,  are  such  as  -to  justify  the 
wish,  often  expressed  by  the  fair  followers  of 
Buddha,  that  in  their  next  state  of  existence 
they  may  be  born  men.  Even  if  in  their  baby 
days  they  escape  the  infanticidal  tendencies  of 
their  parents,  and  this  they  will  certainly  do 
unless  the  household  is  hard  pressed  by  pov- 
erty, and  even  then  their  chances  are  greatly 
in  favor  of  their  surviving,  they  are  regarded 
as  secondary  considerations  compared  with  their 
brothers.  The  philosophers,  from  Confucius  down- 
wards, have  all  agreed  in  assigning  them  to  an 
inferior  place  to  men.  "  Of  all  people,"  said 
Confucius,  "  women  are  the  most  difficult  to 
manage.  If  you  are  familiar  with  them  they 
become  forward,  and  if  you  keep  them  at  a 
distance  they  become  discontented."  When  the 
time  comes  for  them  to  marry,  custom  requires 
them,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  to  take,  as  we 
have  seen,  a  leap  in  the  dark,  and  that  wife 
is  fortunate    who    finds   in    her    husband    a    con- 


^ 


128  Marriage. 

genial  and  faithful  companion.  If  the  reverse 
should  be  the  case,  the  probability  is  that  her 
career  will  be  one  of  great  unhappiness.  Though 
society  looks  with  a  certain  amount  of  disfavor 
upon  the  practice  of  concubinage,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  wife  being  childless,  it  still  fre- 
quently obtains,  and  gives  rise  to  much  misery 
and  heart-burnings  in  households.  A  concubine 
is  generally  bought,  or  occasionally  is  received 
as  a  present.  She  occupies  in  the  family  an 
inferior  position  to  the  wife,  and  her  children, 
if  she  have  any,  belong  by  law  to  the  wife. 
The  law-givers,  accepting  the  general  view  of 
the  inferiority  of  women,  which  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  they  are  marketable 
commodities,  have  provided  that  a  husband  may 
divorce  his  wife  for  any  one  of  seven  different 
faults,  ranging  from  the  disease  of  leprosy  to 
the  habit  of  garrulousness.  On  the  other  hand 
no  offence,  of  whatever  kind,  on  the  part  of 
the  husband,  gives  a  woman  any  right  to  claim 
a  divorce  from  him.  The  consequence  of  this 
very  one-sided  legislation  is,  no  doubt,  to  pro- 
mote that  courteous,  humble,  and  conciliatory 
address  and  manner  which  moralists  say  should 
mark   a   wife's    conduct     towards    her  husband ; 


Death  better  than  Marriage.  129 

and  the  same  authorities  hold  that  in  no  case 
should  she  do  more  than  gently  remonstrate  with 
him  on  any  departure  on  his  part  from  "right 
principles,"  and  never  so  as  to  annoy  or  irri- 
tate  him. 

So  many  are  the  disabilities  of  married  women 
that  many  girls  prefer  going  into  Buddhist  or 
Taouist  nunneries,  or  even  (^ommitting  suicide, 
to  trusting  their  future  to  men  of  whom  they 
can  know  nothing  but  from  the  interested  re- 
ports of  the  go-betweens.  Archdeacon  Gray,  in 
his  work  on  China,  states  that  in  1873  eight 
3^oung  girls,  residing  near  Canton,  "  who  had 
been  affianced,  drowned  themselves  in  order  to 
avoid  marriage.  They  clothed  themselves  in 
their  best  attire,  and  at  eleven  o'clock,  in  the 
darkness  of  the  night,  having  bound  themselves 
together,  they  threw  themselves  into  a  tribu- 
tary  stream    of  the    Canton    River." 

The  re-marriage  of  widows  is  regarded  as  an 
impropriety,  and  in  wealthy  families  is  seldom 
practised.  But  among  the  poorer  classes  neces- 
sity often  compels  a  widow  to  seek  another 
bread-winner.  The  leading  paraphernalia  of  the 
first  marriage  is,  however,  denied  her.  Instead 
of  the  led  wedding  sedan,  borne  by  four  or 
9 


130  Marriage. 

more  men,  she  has  to  go  to  her  new  home  in 
a  common,  small,  blue  or  black  chair,  carried 
by  two  bearers,  and  unaccompanied  by  the 
music  which  cheered  her  on  her  first  journey 
on  a  similar  errand.  Some,  however,  having 
been  possibly  unfortunate  in  their  first  matri- 
monial venture,  refuse  to  listen  to  any  proposal 
for  a  re-marriage,  and,  like  the  young  girls 
mentioned  above,  sfeek  escape  by  death  from  the 
importunities  of  relatives  who  desire  to  get 
them    off  their   hands 

A  reverse  view  of  matrimonial  experiences  is 
suggested  by  the  practice  of  wives  refusing  to 
survive  their  husbands  and,  like  the  victims 
of  suttee  in  India,  putting  a  voluntary  end 
to  their  existence  rather  than  live  to  mouin 
their  loss.  Such  devotion  is  regarded  by  the 
people  with  great  approbation,  and  the  deed 
of  suicide  is  generally  performed  in  public 
with  great  punctiliousness.  The  following  ac- 
count of  one  such  suicide  at  Fuhchow  is 
taken  from  tiie  Hong  Kong  Daily  Press  of 
January   20th,  1861: 

"A  few  days  since,"  says  the  writer,  "I 
met  a  Chinese  procession  passing  through  the 
foreign  settlement,  escorting  a  young   person  in 


Extreme  wifely  Devotion.  181 

scarlet  and  gold  in  a  richly  decorated  chair; 
the  object  of  wiiich,  1  found,  was  to  invite 
the  public  to  come  and  see  her  hang  herself, 
a  step  she  had  resolved  to  take  in  consequence 
of  the  death  of  her  husband,  b}-  which  she 
had  been  left  a  childless  widow.  Both  being 
orphans,  this  event  had  severed  her  dearesi 
earthly  ties,  and.  she  hoped  by  this  sacrifice  tc 
secure  herself  eternal  happiness,  and  a  meeting 
with  her  husband  in  the  next  world.  Avail- 
ing myself  of  the  general  invitation,  I  repaired 
on  the  day  appointed  to  the  indicated  spot. 
We  had  scarcely  arrived,  when  the  same  pro- 
cession was  seen  advancing  from  the  Joss  house 
of  the  woman's  native  village  towards  a  scaffold 
or  gallows  erected  in  an  adjacent  field,  and 
surrounded  by  hundreds  of  natives  of  both  sexes  ; 
the  female  portion,  attired  in  gayest  holiday 
costume,  was  ver}'  numerous.  I  and  a  friend  ob- 
tained a  bench  for  a  consideration,  which,  being 
placed  within  a  few  yards  of  the  scaffold,  gave 
us  a  good  view  of  the  performance.  The  pro- 
cession having  reached  the  foot  of  the  scaffold, 
the  lady  was  assisted  to  ascend  by  Ijer  male 
attendant,  and,  after  having  welcomed  the  crowd, 
partook  with   some   female    relatives  of  a  repast 


132  Marriage. 

prepared  for  her  on  a  table  on  the  scafiFold, 
which  she  appeared  to  appreciate  extremely.  A 
child  in  arms  was  then  placed  upon  the  table, 
whom  she  caressed  and  adorned  with  a  neck- 
lace which  she  had  herself  worn.  She  then  took 
an  ornamental  basket  containing  rice,  herbs,  and 
flowers,  and,  whilst  scattering  them  amongst  the 
crowd,  delivered  a  short  address,  thanking  them 
for  their  attendance,  and  upholding  the  motives 
which  urged  her  to  the  step  she  was  about  to 
take.  This  done,  a  salute  of  bombards  announced 
the  arrival  of  the  time  for  the  performance  of 
the  last  act  of  iier  existence,  when  a  delay 
was  occasioned  by  the  discovery  of  the  absence 
of  a  reluctant  brother,  pending  whose  arrival 
let  me  describe  the  means  of  exteiinination. 
The  gallows  was  formed  by  an  upright  timber 
on  each  side  of  the  scaffold  supporting  a  stout 
bamboo,  from  the  centre  of  which  was  suspended 
a  loop  of  cord  with  a  small  wooden  ring  em- 
bracing both  parts  of  it,  which  was  covered 
by  a  red  silk  handkerchief,  the  whole  being 
surrounded    by    an    awning. 

"The^  missing  brother  having  been  induced 
to  appear,  the  widow  now  proceeded  to  mount 
on   a    chair    placed    under    the    noose,   and,    to 


Extraordinary  Self-Possession.  133 

ascertain  its  fitness  for  her  reception,  deliber- 
ately placed  her  head  in  it ;  then,  withdrawing 
her  head,  she  waved  a  final  adieu  to  the  ad- 
miring spectators,  and  committed  herself  to  its 
embrace  for  the  last  time,  throwing  the  red 
handkerchief  over  her  head.  Her  supports  were 
now  about  to  be  withdrawn,  when  she  was  re- 
minded by  several  voices  in  the  crowd  that  she 
had  omitted  to  draw  down  the  ring  which 
should  tighten  the  cord  round  her  neck ;  smil- 
ing in  acknowledgment  of  the  reminder,  she 
adjusted  the  ring,  and,  motioning  away  her 
supports,  was  left  hanging  in  mid-air — a  suicide. 
With  extraordinary  self-possession  she  now  placed 
her  hands  before  her,  and  continued  to  perform 
the  manual  chin-chin  until  the  convulsions  of 
strangulation  separated  them  and  she  was  dead. 
The  body  was  left  hanging  about  half  an  hour, 
and  then  taken  down  by  her  male  attendants, 
one  of  whom  immediately  took  possession  of 
the  halter,  and  was  about  to  sever  it  for  the 
purpose  of  appropriating  a  portion,  when  a 
struggle  ensued,  of  which  I  took  advantage  to 
attach  myself  to  the  chair  in  which  the  body 
was  now  being  removed  to  the  Joss  house,  in 
order    to    obtain    ocular    proofs   of    her    demise. 


134  Marriage. 

Arrived  at  the  Joss  house  the  body'  was  placed 
on  a  couch,  and  the  handkerchief  withdrawn 
from  the  face,  disclosed  unmistakable  proofs  of 
death.  This  is  the  third  instance  of  suicide 
of  this  sort  within  as  many  weeks.  The  au- 
thorities are  quite  unable  to  prevent  it,  and  a 
monument  is  invariably  erected  to  the  memory  ^ 
of  the   devoted    widow."  * 

Formerly,  these  stately  suicides  were  not  un- 
frequently  presided  over  by  some  of  the  local 
authorities;  but  it  is  said  that  on  one  such 
occasion  the  lady  made  an  excuse  for  leaving 
the  scaffold,  and  never  returned,  since  which 
misadventure  no  mandarin  has  been  found  bold 
enough  to  risk  becoming  the  victim  of  the  rep- 
etition of  so  annoying  an  hoax.  The  monu- 
ments generally  raised  to  these  suicides  consist  . 
either  of  a  tablet  in  one  of  the  neighboring 
temples,  or  an  archway  built  across  the  street 
in  which  the  victim  lived.  Monuments  of  a 
similar  kind  are  earned  by  widows  who  have 
remained  widows  indeed,  for  for<-y  or  fifty 
years,  and  for  such  the  imperial  approbation  is 
generally  sought  for  and  obtained,  the  edict 
announcing  the   gracious  answer  of  the  emperor 

*  This  practice  is,  however,  very  rare. 


Happiness  Relative.  135 

always  appearing  in  tlie  Peking  Grazette.  The 
only  ancient  bar  to  marriage  in  China  was 
consanguinity,  as  evidenced  by  the  the  posses- 
sion of  identical  surnames  ;  but  later  legislation 
has  declared  marriages  with  a  cousin  on  the 
mother's  side,  or  a  step-daughter,  or  a  moth- 
er's sister,  illegal,  and,  strict!}'  speaking,  pun- 
ishable   with   death   by   strangulation.  , 

The  picture  here  given  of  married  life  in 
China  has  been  necessarily  darkly  shaded,  since 
it  is  a  rule  onlj-  in  its  unfortunate  phases  that 
it  affords  opportunity  for  remark.  As  has  been 
said  of  an  empire,  that  household  is  fortunate 
which  has  no  history,  and  without  doubt  there 
are  manj'  hundreds  of  thousands  of  families  in 
China  which  are  in  that  happy  condition.  The 
placid  natures  of  Chinamen  make  them  com- 
paratively safe  depositories  of  power  over  their 
fellow  creatures.  A  man  who  has  been  accus- 
tomed from  his  A'outh  up  to  perform  every 
little  duty  with  a  punctilious  regard  to  the 
ceremonies  which  are  proper  to  it,  to  regulate 
every  motion  of  his  body  by  fixed  rules,  and 
to  consider  every  breach  of  the  elaborate  eti- 
quette which  surrounds  his  daily  life,  as  a  stain 
upon    his  chai'acter,  is   less   likely  to  be  actively 


136 


Marriage. 


cruel  and  violent  than  more  unceremonious  and 
warlike  people ;  and  Chinese  wives  doubtless 
benefit  by  the  peaceful  tendencies  of  those  ob- 
servances. Happiness  is,  after  all,  a  relative 
term,  and  Chinese  women,  knowing  no  higher 
status,  are,  as  a  rule,  content  to  run  the  risk 
of  wrongs  which  would  be  unendurable  to  an 
European  woman  and  to  find  happiness  under 
conditions  which  are  fortunately  unknown  in 
Western    countries. 


HOUSEHOLD    ORNAMENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  NURTURE  AND  EDUCATION  OF  THE  YOUNG. 


T 


*HE  day  and  hour  on  which 
the  baby  is  born  are  con- 
sidered as  portentous  for  the 
future  good  or  evil  of  the  child, 
as  among  English  north  country 
folks.  A  child  born  on  the  fifth 
day  of  a  month,  and  more  cer- 
tainly if  on  the  fifth  of  the 
fifth  month,  will  either  commit  suicide  iu 
after-life,  or  will  murder  his  parents.  Apart 
from  these  and  some  other  ill-omened  days, 
a  child  born  at  noon  is  believed  to  be  a  sure 
inheritor  of  wealth  and  honor,  and  he  who 
first  sees  the  light  between  nine  and  eleven 
will  have  a  hard  lot  at  first  and  afterwards 
great  riches  ;  while  the  unfortunate  infant  who 
appears  between  three  and  five  is  doomed  to 
poverty  and  woe.  As  has  been  said  by  Mr. 
Dennys,   in   his   "Folklore    of    China,"    "if    the 

137 


138  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young, 

Chinese  lay  great  stress  on  the  hour  of  birth, 
we  no  less  attribute  to  the  day  a  talismanic 
influence  over  the  future  of  the  new-born 
child  ;    as   witness   the   good  wives'   rhyme : 

Monday's  child   is  fair  of  face, 

Tuesday's  child   is  full  of  grace, 

Wednesday's  child  is  full  of  woe, 

Thursday's  child  has  far  to  go, 

Friday's  child  is  loving  and  giving, 

Saturday's  child   works  hard  for  its  living  ; 

But  the  child  which  is  born   on  the  Sabbath-day, 

Is  blythe  and  bonnie,   and  good  and   gay. 

The  cries  and  movements  of  babies  are  care- 
fully watched  by  the  light  of  the  regulations  laid 
down  by  physiognomists,  who  say  that  if  a 
baby  cries  long,  he  will  live  to  be  old ;  but 
if  his  cries  are  constantly  intermittent,  his  life 
is  precarious.  Babies  whose  cries  die  out,  or 
the  tone  of  whose  crying  is  deep,  or  who  open 
their  own  eyes,  or  who  constantly  move  their 
hands  and  feet,  are  doomed  by  the  same 
authorities  to  early  death ;  while  a  child  who 
walks,  teeths,  and  speaks  early  has  a  bad  dis- 
position,   and   will    turn    out   to   be  unlovable. 

Swaddling  clothes  for  babies  are  essential  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  contact  with  any 
evil  influence  which  may  interfere  with  the  all- 


Bahy's    Cries.  IS  9 

pervading  principle  of  the  season.  For  instance, 
should  the  time  of  year  be  spring  or  summer, 
then  tlie  life-producing  principle  is  abroad,  and 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  baby 
should  be  protected  from  t|ie  touch  of  anything 
that  would  counteract  that  principle  existing  in 
it. 

In  the  same  way,  in  autumn  and  winter 
the  gathering-in  principle  is  prevailing,  and 
care  must  be  taken  to  ward  off  all  contact 
with  everytliing  hostile  to  it.  The  first  clothes 
worn  by  the  infant  should  be  made  out  of 
the  coat  and  trousers  of  some  old  man  of 
seventy  or  eighty  years,  to  ensure  a  like  length 
of  life  to  the  wearer.  But  to  return  to  the 
pre-clothes  period :  on  the  third  day  after  its 
birtli  tlie  baby  is  washed  for  the  first  time. 
The  occasion  is  one  of  great  moment,  and  the 
relations  and  friends  are  invited  to  take  part 
in  the  ceremony.  Each  guest  brings  with  him 
or  her  as  the  case  may  be,  an  onion  and 
some  cash  —  emblems  of  keen-wittedness  and 
wealth  —  which  they  present  the  child.  Water, 
in  which  scented  herbs  and  leaves  have  been 
fused,  is  used  in  the  ablutions,  and  when  the 
process    is    over,    all    present    join    in    offering 


140  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

sacrifices   to    the    goddess    of    children    for    the 
mercy   she   has   vouchsafed. 

At  the  end  of  the  raontli  the  mother  leaves 
her  room  for  the  first  time,  and  the  ceremonies 
of  naming  the  baby,  and  of  shaving  its  liead, 
whether  girl  or  boy,  are  performed  on  the 
occasion.  In  contradistinction  to  this  rational 
and  civilized  regard  for  the  mother,  the  abo- 
rigines in  the  province  of  Kwei-chow  preserve 
the  curious  custom,  known  as  couvarde,  which 
is,  or  was,  also  practised  by  the  Basques,  among 
other  peoples.  The  motlier  among  these  tribei 
gets  up  immediate]}'  after  the  birth  of  th^ 
child,  and  goes  about  her  ordinary  duties,  while 
the  father  goes  to  bed  with  the  infant  for  a 
month ;  the  idea  being  that  the  life  of  the 
father  and  child  is  one,  and  that  any  harm 
happening  to  the  father  will  affect  injuriously 
the  well-being  of  the  infant.  For  a  hundred 
days  the  Chinese  mother  remains  in  the  house, 
and  at  the  end  of  that  time  goes  with  her 
infant  to  the  temple  of  Kwan-yin  —  the  god- 
dess of  matrons  —  to  return  thanks  for  the 
possession  of  a  child.  On  its  first  birthday,  if 
the  child  be  a  boy,  he  is  seated  in  a  large 
sieve,  in  which   are  placed   round   him   a   set  of 


Birthday  Presents.  141 

money-scales,  a  pair  of  shears,  a  foot  measure, 
a  brass  mirror,  a  pencil,  ink,  paper,  ink-slab, 
a  book  or  two,  an  abacus,  and  other  im- 
plements and  ornaments ;  and  the  assembled 
friends  watch  to  see  which  object  he  first  han- 
dles, in  order  to  gain  an  indication  of  his 
future  career.  The  brightest  hopes  are  enter- 
tained of  his  scholarship  should  he  take  up  a 
book  or  pencil.  To  see  him  handle  the  money- 
scales  is  the  next  ambition  of  his  parents,  and 
the  probability  is  that  devices  are  not  wanting 
to  direct  his  attention  to  the  objects  which  it 
is  particularly   desired   he   should   touch. 

The  power  of  a  Chinese  father  over  his  chil- 
dren is  as  full  as  that  possessed  by  the  Roman 
father,  and  stops  short  only  with  life.  The 
practice  of  selling  children  is  common,  and, 
though  the  law  makes  it  a  punishable  offence 
should  the  sale  be  effected  against  the  will  of 
the  children,  the  prohibition  is  practically  ig- 
nored. In  the  same  way  a  law  exists  in  the 
statute-book .  making  infanticide  a  crime,  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  it  is  never  acted  upon ;  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  more  especially 
in  the  provinces  of  Keang-se  and  Fuh-keen, 
this  most   unnatural  offence   prevails  among  the 


142  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young, 

poorer  classes  to  au  alarming  extent.  Not  only 
do  the  people  acknowledge  the  existence  of 
the  practice,  but  -  they  even  go  the  length 
of  defending  it.  What,  they  say,  is  the  good 
of  rearing  daughters?  When  they  are  young 
they  are  only  an  expense,  and  when  they  might 
be  able  to  earn  a  living,  they  marry  and  leave 
us.  Periodically  the  mandarins  inveigh  against 
the  inhumanit}-^  of  the  offence  and  appeal  to 
the  better  instincts  of  the  people  to  put  a 
stop  to  it ;  but  a  stone  whicli  stands  near  a 
pool  outside  the  city  of  Fuhchow,  bearing  the 
inscription,  "  Girls  may  not  be  drowned  here," 
testifies  with  terrible  emphasis  to  the  futility 
of  their  praise  wo  rth}-^  endeavors.  It  is  only, 
however,  abject  poverty  which  drives  parents 
to  this  dreadful  expedient,  and  in  the  more 
prosperous  and  wealthy  districts  the  crime  is 
almost   unknown. 

The  complete  subjection  of  children  to  their 
parents  puts  into  the  hands  of  these  latter  a 
power  which  is  occasionally  exercised  with  cruelty, 
as  is  implied  by  the  existence  of  the  laws  which 
provide  that  a  father  who  chastises  his  ^ou,  to 
death,  shall  receive  a  hundred  blows  with  the 
bamboo,    and    that    sixt}^    blows    and    a    year's 


Subjection  and  Punishment.  143 

banishment  shall  be  the  punishment  inflicted 
for  the  murder  of  a  disobedient  child  or  grand- 
child. So  firndy  is  respect  to  parents  imbued 
in  the  minds  of  every  Chinese  boy  and  youth, 
that  resistance  to  the  infliction  of  cruel  and 
even  unmerited  punishment  is  seldom  if  ever 
offered,  and  full-grown  men  snbmit  meekly  to 
be  flogged  without  raising  their  hands.  Tlie 
law  steps  in  on  every  occasion  in  support  of 
parental  authority,  and  prison  doors  are  readily 
opened  at  the  request  of  parents  for  the  recep- 
tion of  disobedient  sons,  with  one  curious  ex- 
ception, viz.,  a  father  cannot  send  his  son  for 
perpetual  imprisonment  against  the  wishes  of 
his  son's  wife.  Over  the  property  of  sons  the 
father's  authority  is  as  complete  as  over  their 
liberty ;  he  is,  however,  occasionally  called  upon 
to  pay  debts  incurred  by  his  son,  and  con- 
trary wise  the  son,  if  by  any  means  possessed 
of  property,  is  obliged  to  pay  his  father's 
debts. 

Filial  piet)'-  is  the  leading  principle  in  Chi- 
nese ethics.  It  is  the  point  upon  wliich  every 
teacher,  from  Confucius  downwards,  has  most 
strongly  insisted,  and  its  almost  universal  prac- 
tice affords   ground  for  tlie  belief  held  by  some 


144  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the  Young. 

that  in  the  long  continuance  of  the  empire 
the  Chinese  are  reaping  the  reward  held  out 
in  the  fiftli  commandment  of  the  Mosaic  deca- 
logue. "Filial  piety,"  said  Confucius,  "consists 
in  obedience ;  in  serving  one's  parents  when 
alive  according  to  propriet}' ;  in  burying  them 
when  dead  according  to  proprietj' ;  and  in  sac- 
rificing to  them  according  to  propriety."  In 
the  "Book  of  Rites"  it  is  laid  down  that 
"during  the  lifetime  of  his  parents  a  son 
should  not  go  abroad ;  or,  if  he  do  so,  then 
to  a  fixed  place.  When  at  home  he  should 
rise  with  the  first  cock-crow,  and  having  washed 
and  dressed  himself  carefully,  should  inquire 
what  the  wishes  of  his  parents  are  as  to  the 
food  they  would  eat  and  drink.  He  should 
not  enter  a  room  unless  invited  by  his  father, 
nor  retire  without  permission ;  neither  should 
he  speak  unless  spoken  to."  These  are  not 
unheeded  precepts,  but  are  to  this  day  ob- 
served, if  not  strictly  to  the  letter,  at  least  in 
the   spirit. 

The  only  exception  to  the  exercise  of  imme- 
diate  parental  control  is  when  a  son  takes 
office.  The  emperor  tlien  stands  to  him  in 
loco  parentis^  and   though  he   is   bound   to  con- 


Starting  for  School.  145 

form  to  the  recognized  national  customs  with 
regard  to  parents,  he  is  emancipated  from  their 
jurisdiction.  When  either  of  them  die  he  is 
compelled  to  retire  from  office  for  three  years, 
wiiich  in  practice  is,  by  a  fiction,  reduced  to 
twenty-seven  months,  but  in  private  life,  as 
long  as  his  parents  live,  he  holds  himself  at 
their  disposal,  and  is  guided  by  tliem  in  the 
choice  of  his  occupation  and  in  every  concern 
of  life. 

School-life  begins  at  the  age  of  six,  and 
among  the  wealthier  classes  great  care  is  shown 
in  the  choice  of  a  master.  His  excellences 
must  be  moral  as  well  as  mental,  and  his 
power  of  teaching  must  be  unquestioned.  The 
selection  of  a  lucky  day  for  beginning  work 
is  confided  to  astrologers,  who  avoid  above  all 
other  days  those  upon  which  Confucius  and 
Ttiang  Hieh,  the  reputed  inventor  of  writing, 
died  and  were  buried.  The  stars  having  indi- 
cated a  propitious  day,  the  boy  presents  him- 
self at  the  school,  bringing  with  him  two 
small  candles,  some  sticks  of  incense,  and 
some  paper-money,  which  are  burnt  at  the 
shrine  of  Confucius,  before  which  also  the  little 

fellow    prostrates    himself    three    times.     There 
10 


146   The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

being  no  alphabet  in  Chinese,  the  pupil  has 
to  plunge  at  once  into  the  midst  of  the  sub- 
ject and  begins  by  learning  to  read  the  San 
tsze   king^  a  work  written  in  sentences   of  three 


A   srHooi.r.iRi,, 


characters,  each  containing  a  scrap  of  elemen- 
tary knowledge.  Having  mastered,  the  mysteries 
of  this  book,  he  is  taught  the  Tsien  tsze  king, 
or  the  thousand-character  classic  which  deals 
with    somewhat   more    advanced    subjects.      The 


The  four  Boohs  and  five  Classics.         147 

next  step  is  to  the  "  Four  Books,"  known  as ' 
the  Lun  yu,  or  Confucian  Analects ;  tlie  Ta 
Jieo,  or  Great  Learning;  the  Chung  yung^  or 
the  Golden  Medium ;  and  the  Mung  tsze^  or 
Sayings  of  Mencius.  Then  follow  the  five 
classics,  viz.,  the  Yih  king,  or  Book  of  Changes; 
the  Shoo  king,  or  Book  of  History ;  the  Chun 
tsew,  or  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals ;  the  She 
king,  or  Book  of  Odes ;  and  the  Le  ke,  or 
Book  of  Rites.  This  is  the  ultima  thule  of 
Chinese  learning.  A  full  comprehension  of  these 
four  books  and  five  classics,  together  with  the 
commentaries  upon  them,  and  the  power  of 
turning  this  knowledge  to  account  in  the  shape 
of  essays  and  poems  is  all  that  is  required  at 
the  highest  examinations  in  the  empire.  Year 
after  year  these  form  the  subjects  of  study  of 
every  aspiring  scholar  until  every  character  and 
every  phrase  is,  or  should  be,  indelibly  en- 
graved on  the  memory.  This  course  of  instruc- 
tion has  been  exactly  followed  in  every  school 
in  the  empire  for  many  centuries,  and  the  re- 
sult is  that  there  are  annually  turned  out  a 
vast  number  of  lads  of  all  cast  in  the  same 
mould,  all  possessed  of  a  certain  amount  of 
ready-made    knowledge,    and     with    their    mem- 


148  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

ories  unduly  exercised  at  the  expense  of  their 
thinking  powers.  The  choice  of  a  future  call- 
ing, which  is  often  so  perplexing  to  English 
lads  and  their  parents,  is  simplified  in  China 
by  the  fact  of  there  being  but  two  pursuits 
which  a  man  of  respectability  and  education 
6an  follow,  namely,  the  mandarinate  and  trade. 
The  liberal  professions,  as  we  understand  them, 
are  unknown  in  China.  The  judicial  system 
forbids  the  existence  of  the  legal  professions, 
except  in  the  case  of  official  secretaries  attached 
to  the  mandarins'  yamuns ;  *  and  medicine  is, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  represented  by  charla- 
tans, who  prey  on  the  follies  of  their  fellow- 
men,  and  dispense  such  monstrous  nostrums  as 
ground  tigers'  teeth,  'snakes'  skins,  etc.,  in  lieu 
of  drugs.  A  lad,  or  his  parents  for  him,  has, 
therefore,  practically  to  consider  whether  the 
position  he  has  held  at  school  is  sufficientl}'^ 
good,  to  justify  his  attempting  to  compete  at 
the  general  competitive  examinations  to  qualify 
him  for  office,  or  whether  he  should  embark 
in  one  of  the  numerous  mercantile  concerns 
which  abound  among  the  money-making  and 
thrifty    Chinese. 

•  A  yamun  is  an  official  residence. 


Civil  Service   Examination.  149 

Should  he  prefer  winning  fame  and  gaining 
official  rank  he  loses  no  time  in  perfecting  him- 
self in  the  books  he  studied  at  school,  and  in 
practising  the  art  of  writing  essays,  and  pen- 
ning verses.  As  soon  as  he  considers  himself 
sufficiently  prepared  to  undergo  the  first  ordeal 
he  presents  liimself  before  the  secretary  of  the 
magistrate  of  the  district  in  which  he  lives, 
armed  with  a  paper  stating  his  name,  age, 
place  of  residence,  the  names  of  his  father, 
mother,  grandparents,  and  great  grandparents, 
and  giving  a  description  of  his  appearance, 
and  especially  the  color  of  his  complexion.  In 
return  his  name  is  entered  as  a  candidate  for 
the  next  examination,  and  he  pays  his  fee  in 
the  shape  of  the  purchase  he  is  expected  to 
make  of  paper  for  the  examination.  On  .a  day 
appointed  by  the  magistrate,  the  candidates, 
who  frequentl}'^  number  two  or  more  thousands, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  district,  go  at  day- 
light to  the  Kaou-pung-tsze,  or  examination-hall, 
in  the  magistrate's  yamun.  When  all  are  as- 
sembled—  the  magistrate  having  taken  his  seat 
at  a  table  covered  with  red  cloth  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  hall— a  notice-board  is  displayed, 
on    which   appear   three   passages   from    the  four 


150  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young 

books,  on  which  the  students  are  expected  to 
write  two  essays  and  a  poem.  This  constitutes 
the  preliminary  trial,  and  after  a  few  days  a 
list  of  the  names  of  those  who  have  passed  is 
posted  up  at  the  yamun  gate.  The  names  of 
those  who  have  done  best  are  arranged  in  a 
centrifugal  circle  at  the  head  of  the  list,  while 
the  rest  are  written  side  by  side  perpendicu- 
larly. The  next  examination,  which  lasts  five 
days,  takes  place  after  only  a  short  interval. 
The  required  work  on  each  of  the  first  four 
days  consists  of  an  essay  on  a  text  from  the 
four  books  and  a  poem,  but  on  the  third  day 
an  extra  ode  is  optional,  and  so  also  on  the 
fourth  day  are  additional  poems.  On  the  fifth 
day  part  of  an  essay  (which  is  purposely  left 
incomplete)  on  a  text  from  the  same  source  is 
required. 

Again  a  list  of  the  successful  candidates  is 
published,  and  to  these  the  magistrate  gives 
a  congratulatory  feast.  The  scene  is  next 
changed  to  the  literary  chancellor's  yamun  in 
the  prefectural  cit}',  where  tliose  who  have  dined 
with  the  magistrate  appear  before  the  prefect 
as  a  preliminary  to  a  final  examination  by  the 
chancellor.     This   test   also   lasts   five   days,  and 


Competitive  Examinations.  151 

is  conducted  exactly  as  those  at  the  magis- 
trate's yamun,  the  subjects  being  taken  from 
the  same  books.  In  the  same  way  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  prefect  to  entertain  at  a  dinner 
those  who  pass  best,  and  with  this  feast  his 
part  in  the  examination  ceases.  The  literary 
chancellor  then  next  examines  those  whose  num- 
bers—  for  he  is  not  supposed  to  know  their 
names  —  have  been  sent  him  by  the  prefect, 
and  from  them  he  selects  the  best  men  to  the 
number  laid  down  by  law.  These  meet  on  a 
given  day  the  successful  competitors  at  the 
other  district-examinations  in  the  prefectures, 
when  the}^  are  expected  to  write  from  mem- 
orv  one  of  tlie  sixteen  edicts  of  the  Emperor 
K'ang-he,  with  the  commentary  thereon  of  his 
son,  Yung-ching.  This  completes  the  examina- 
tion, and  on  those  who  have  survived  the  various 
tests  is  conferred  tlie  degree  of  Siu-ts'ai  or 
"  Elegant  Scholarsliip,"  which  may  be  said  to 
be  the  equivalent  of  our  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts.  Having  donned  the  diess  proper  to 
their  rank,  the  new  graduates  go  in  a  body  to 
pay  their  respects  to  the  literary  chancellor, 
before  whom,  at  a  word  of  command  from  the 
master  of  ceremonies-  thev  nerform  the   Ko-t'ow 


152  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

three  times.  Subsequently  they  pay  the  same 
honor  to  the  prefect,  and  they  then  disperse 
to   their  various   homes. 

The  examination  for  the  next  degree  of  Ku- 
jin  is  held  in  the  provincial  examination-hall, 
in  the  provincial  capital,  by  two  commissioners 
especially  sent  for  the  purpose  from  Peking. 
These  officials  generally  arrive  a  day  or  two 
before  the  date  fixed  for  the  examination,  and 
take  up  their  quarters  in  residences  prepared 
for  them  in  the  city,  the  doors  of  which  are 
immediately  sealed  up  so  as  to  prevent  any 
contaminating  influences  from  reaching  them. 
On  the  day  before  the  examination  begins,  they 
move  into  yamuns  set  apart  for  their  use  within 
the  precincts  of  the  "schools,"  accompanied  by 
the  governor  of  the  province.  During  the  night 
preceding  the  examination,  or  very  early  on  the 
morning  of  the  day,  the  graduates,  who  gen- 
erally number  from  six  to  eight  thousand, 
enter  the  hall,  and  each  takes  possession  of 
the  cell  set  apart  for  him,  and  which  bears  a 
number  correspondent  to  that  on  his  roll  of 
examination-paper.  The  cells  are  built  in  rows, 
and  are  about  three  feet  wide,  three  and  a 
half  deep,  and  about  six  feet  high.     They  have 


Competitive  Examinations.  153 

neither  doors  nor  windows,  and  the  furniture 
of  each  consists  only  of  three  or  four  pieces 
of  wide  board,  which  serve  as  bench  and  table 
during  the  day  and  a  bedstead  by  night.  Each 
competitor  brings  with  him  food  for  two  days, 
and  on  entering  is  rigorously  searched  to  see 
that  he  has  no  "cribs"  with  him.  As  soon 
as  all  are  assembled,  the  doors  are  locked  and 
sealed,  and  the  examiners  having  vowed  before 
Heaven  that  they  will  act  justly,  and  without 
fear  or  favor,  in  the  approaching  ordeal,  the 
work  begins  by  the  issuing  to  each  student  of 
four  texts  from  the  "  Four  Books,"  upon  which 
he  is  expected  to  write  three  essays  and  a 
poem.  Two  days  are  given  for  the  completion 
of  these  tasks,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time 
the  doors  are  thrown  open,  and  those  who 
have  finished  their  work  pass  out  under  a 
salute  of  three  guns  and  the  beating  of  drums. 
Those  who  are  not  ready  are  allowed  a  few 
hours'    additional   time. 

Meanwhile,  on  the  completion  of  each  essay, 
it  is  carried  to  the  assistant  examiners,  who, 
if  they  find  any  infringement  of  the  canonical 
laws  of  composition,  cast  it  aside  at  once ;  on 
the   other    hand,    if    they    approve   its   contents, 


154  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

they  mark  it  with  a  red  circle,  and  forward 
a  copy  of  it  to  the  prefect,  who,  on  receiving 
it,  beats  the  "  recommending  drum "  suspended 
at  his  office.  The  original  manuscript  is  in 
each  case  handed  over  to  the  custody  of  tlie 
governor,  the  copy  only  coming  before  the  com- 
missioners, in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  their  recognizing  the  handwriting  of  any 
possibly  favored  competitors.  After  a  day's  in- 
terval the  students  reassemble,  and  with  the 
same  formalities  write  four  essa3s  and  a  poem 
on  five  texts  from  the  "  Five  Classics."  Again 
they  disperse  for  twenty-four  hours  and  a  third 
time  take  their  seats,  or  at  least  those  of  them 
whose  papers  have  not  been  thrown  out,  for 
the  final  ordeal.  This  time  they  are  given 
six  texts  on  miscellaneous  subjects,  on  which 
they  have  to  write  five  essay's  and  a  poem. 
This  completes  the  examination,  and  the  doors 
having  been  opened  for  the  last  time,  the  com- 
petitors, together  with  the  three  or  four  thou- 
sand officials  and  servants  who  are  employed 
by  the  government  for  the  regulation  and  ser- 
vice of  the  hall,  pour  out  into  the  city.  As 
soon  as  the  commissioners  have  satisfied  them- 
selves   on    the    relative    merits    of    the    papers* 


'■'Belling  of  the  Beer:'  156 

they  issue  a  list  of  the  names  of  those  to  whom 
tliey  award  the  degree  of  Kii-jiu  or  Master  of 
Arts. 

To  the  new  Kii-jin  the  governor  of  a  pro- 
vince offers  dubious  hospitality  in  the  shape 
of  a  feast,  known  as  Luh  ming,  or  Belling  of 
the  Deer,  a  name  given  to  it  from  the  fjact 
that  an  ode  from  the  book  of  poetry  bearing 
that  name  is  chanted  on  the  occasion.  The 
elaborate  pretensions  of  this  festival  are  in  in- 
verse ratio  to  its  merit,  and  in  exchange  for 
the  honor  done  them,  the  graduates,  at  a 
given  signal  from  the  master  of  ceremonies, 
bow  their  heads  to  the  ground  three  times 
before  their  host.  Visits  are  afterwards  made 
to  the  literary  chancellor  and  other  officials 
connected  with  the  examinations.  Immediate!}'- 
on  winning  their  degrees,  the  graduates  receive 
from  the  emperor,  at  the  hands  of  the  pro- 
vincial treasurer,  a  suit  of  clothes  and  a  pair 
of  boots ;  but  these,  like  the  governor's  feast, 
are  mere  shadows  of  what  they  purport  to  be, 
and  the  difference  between  the  value  of  reallv 
good  articles  and  of  the  trash  sent  to  the 
graduates  remains  in  the  treasurer's  pocket. 
In   the   same  way  the    money  actually  spent  on 


156   The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

conducting  the  examinations  bears  no  proportion 
wliatever  to  the  amount  charged  on  the  im- 
perial exchequer,  but  not  a  coin  of  the  unex- 
pended balance  ever  finds  its  way  back  to  the 
treasury. 

The  successful  candidates,  on  return  to  their 
homes,  are  received  with  every  mark  of  honor, 
and  the  parents-in-law  of  each  give  a  grand 
entertainment  in  commemoration  of  the  event. 
The  honor  attaching  to  literary  degrees  is  so 
great,  and  the  desire  to  possess  them  is  so 
nearly  universal,  that  to  suppose  that  the  ex- 
aminations are,  unlike  every  other  institution 
in  China,  free  from  bribery  and  corruption,  is 
to  misjudge  the  tendencies  of  fallen  human 
nature.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  offi- 
cials of  all  grades  connected  with  the  exami- 
nations are  not  unfrequently  susceptible  to  the 
claims  of  friendship  and  the  weighty  persuasions 
of  golden  arguments.  However  elaborate  may 
be  the  arrangements  for  the  prevention  of  any 
underhand  dealings,  there  ma}'  always  be  found 
means  by  wliich  the  essays  of  certain  favored 
individuals  find  their  way  to  the  examiner,  who 
is  interested  in  the  success  of  the  writers. 
Sometimes  again,  a  candidate,  distrustful   of  his 


«  College  of  the  Forest  of  Pencils"     157 

abilities,  succeeds,  with  the  connivance  of  the 
necessary  officials,  in  passing  in  a  clever  writer 
as  a  substitute,  who  wins  honor  for  him.  If 
such  practices  are  discovered,  the  perpetrators 
are  immediately  punished ;  but  the  crime  mainly 
consists   in   being   found   out. 

The  examination  for  the  next  degree,  of 
Tsin-sze,  is  held  at  Peking,  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  following  that  of  the  Kii-jin  degree, 
and  is  presided  over  by  a  minister  of  state, 
an  imperial  prince,  and  three  other  examiners. 
The  Kii-jin  assemble  to  the  number  of  about 
six  thousand,  from  among  whom  only  about 
three  hundred  and  fifty  are  ultimately  chosen 
for  the  higher  honor.  These  candidates  have 
to  undergo  a  test-examination,  known  as  Fu  she, 
before  being  allowed  to  enter  at  the  Hwny  she, 
or  metropolitan  competition.  Those  who  are 
successful  in  this  last  trial  obtain  the  provis- 
ional title  of  Kung  sze,  until  the  time  arrives 
for  the  Teen  she,  or  palace-examination.  On 
this  occasion  texts  from  the  Four  Books  and 
Five  Classics  are  given  out,  as  at  the  provin- 
cial examination,  and  the  essaj's  are  examined 
by  a  special  commission  of  imperial  revisers. 
The    candidate    who    passes   first   at   this    exam- 


158  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

ination  receives  the  title  of  Chwang-yuen  and 
a  post  in  the  Han  lin  t/uen,  or  "  College  of 
the  Forest  of  Pencils,"  tlie  highest  literary 
body  in  the  empire.  The  ne\ys  of  his  success 
is  carried  with  all  speed  to  his  native  place, 
where  the  announcement  is  received  with  uni- 
versal rejoicing,  as  conferring  a  lasting  honor 
on  the  district.  The  second  man  receives  the 
title  of  Pang-yen^  or  "  Eye  of  the  List,"  a 
name  derived  from  the  idea  that  he  is  second 
to  the  Chwang-yuen^  as  the  eye  is  below  the 
forehead.  The  third  is  entitled  T'an-hwa^  or 
"searcher  for  a  sprig  of  the  olea  fragrans,"  a 
plant  which  is  held  to  symbolize  literary  suc- 
cess. 

Of  the  remaining  successful  candidates  about 
o.ne  in  three  are  admitted  to  the  Han-lin  Col- 
lege, and  the  remainder  receive  the  degree  of 
Tsin-sze.  Subsequently  a  final  examination, 
known  as  the  CKaou  K'aou^  or  Court-exam- 
ination, is  held  at  the  palace,  at  which  a  theme 
chosen  by  the  emperor  is  given  out  to  the 
competitors.  Finally,  the  graduates  are  admitted 
to  an  audience  b}''  the  emperor,  who  entertains 
them  at  a  feast.  Those  Tsin-sze  who  are  not 
admitted  to  the  Han-lin  College  receive  appoint- 


A   CHINESE  TEACHER. 


159 


Military  Examinations.  161 

ments   either   to    provincial    offices,   or   to    posts 
in    conuectien    with   the   six   Boards. 

These  examinations  are  open  to  every  man 
in  the  empire,  of  whatever  grade,  unless  he 
belong  to  one  of  the  following  four  classes,  or 
be  the  descendant  of  one  such  within  three 
generations  :  First,  Prostitutes  ;  second,  Actors ; 
third,  Executioners,  and  the  servants  of  man- 
darins ;  and  fourtli,  Jailers.  The  theory  with 
regard  to  these  people  is,  that  prostitutes  and 
actors  being  devoid  of  all  shame,  and  execu- 
tioners and  jailers  having  become  hardened  by 
the  cruel  nature  of  their  offices,  are  unfit,  in 
their  own  persons,  or  as  represented  hy  their 
sons,  to  win  posts  of  honor  by  means  of  the 
examinations.  Not  long  since,  an  edict  appeared 
in  the  Peking  Gazette,  ordering  the  instant  re- 
moval from  the  rank  of  Kii-jin  of  a  man  named 
Nin  Kwang-to,  on  its  being  discovered  that 
his  father  had  been  a  gatekeeper  in  the  yamun 
of  a  district  magistrate  in  Kwang-se.  "  It  is 
contrary  to  law,"  said  the  edict,  "that  a  low 
official  underling  should  obtain  registration  in 
a  district  other  than  his  own,  and  thus  fraud- 
ulently gain  access  to  the  privilege  of  exam- 
ination ;  and  it  is  most  necessary  that  severe 
11 


162  The  Nurture  and  Education  of  the   Young. 

punishment  should  be  meted  out  iu  this  case." 
If  no  reward  beyond  the  possession  of  the 
degrees  attached  to  the  successful  candidates 
at  the  competitions,  the  probability  is  that  no 
great  stress  would  be  laid  on  the  enforcement 
of  this  regulation ;  but  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
amination-hall is  the  Only  legitimate  door  to 
the  mandarin's  yamun  makes  it  imperative,  in 
tlie  eyes  of  the  law,  that  sliameless  and  cruel 
persons  should  not  be  allowed  to  exercise  rule 
over  their  fellow  men.  The  military  examina- 
tions are  held  separately,  and  though  the  lit- 
erary calibre  of  the  candidates  is  treated  much 
in  the  same  way  as  at  the  civil  examinations, 
the  ^ame  high  standard  of  knowledge  is  not 
required;  but,  in  addition,  skill  in  archery  and 
in    the    use    of  warlike    weapons   is    essential. 

At  the  first  examination,  which  is  held  by 
the  magistrates  of  each  district,  the  candidates 
are  expected  to  show  their  proficiency  in  the 
use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  on  foot.  Those 
who  succeed  in  passing  this  ordeal  are  required 
to  shoot,  still  with  a  bow,  from  the  back  of 
a  horse  galloping  at  full  speed.  Three  arrows 
are  all  that  are  allowed  to  the  candidate,  on 
each   occasion.     At  the    third    examination  their 


An  Appearance  of  Backwardness.        163 

skill  in  the  use  of  swords  weighing  from  a 
huiulred  to  a  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  is 
put  to  the  test,  and  their  strength  is  further 
tried  by  lifting  heavy  weights  and  drawing 
stiff  bows.  It  is  illubtrative  of  the  backward- 
ness of  the  Chinese  in  warlike  matters  that, 
though  they  have  been  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  gunpowder  for  some  centuries,  they  re- 
vert, in  the  examination  of  militar}'  candidates, 
to  the  weapons  of  the  ancients,  and  that  while 
theoretically  they  are  great  strategists,  strength 
and  skill  in  the  use  of  these  weapons  are  the 
only    tests    required   for   commissions.* 

*The  responsibility  for  this  "  appearance  of  backwardness"  rests  not  upon  the 
Chinese,  but  upon  their  jealous  Manchoo  rulers,  who  do  not  wish  their  subjects 
trained  in  the  use  of  effective  weapons  of  war. 


CHAPTER  V. 


FOOD   AND   DRESS. 


TN   a   country  covering  so 
large    au    area    as    China, 


large 

with  every  variety  botli 
of  climate  and  soil,  it  is 
difficult  to  generalize  on 
the  subject  of  the  food  of 
the  people ;  and  yet  in 
China,  ow^ing  to  the  ho- 
mogeneousness  of  the  in- 
habitants, there  is  less  difference  in  this  respect 
than  might  be  expected.  To  begin,  the  staff 
of  life  in  China  is  rice.  It  is  eaten,  and  al- 
ways eaten,  from  north  to  south  and  from  east 
to  west,  except  among  the  very  poor  people 
in  some  of  the  northern  non-rice-producing 
provinces,  where  millet  takes  its  place.  In  all 
other  parts  the  big  bowl  of  rice  forms  the 
staple   of    the   meals   of    the    people,    and  it    is 

164 


Chopsticks  and  Slippery  food.  167 

accompanied  with  vegetables,  fisli,  or  meat,  ac- 
cording to  the  circumstances  of  the  househokL 
Among  some  there  is  a  disinclination  to  eat 
meat,  owing  to  the  influence  of  Buddhism, 
which  teaches  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  devout  followers  of  that  sect  natu- 
rally avoid  partaking  of  the  flesh  of  any  ani- 
mal, which  might  possibly  have  been  their 
dearest  deceased  friend  or  relation  in  another 
form  of  existence  ;  but  the  more  general  reason 
for  the  preference  of  vegetables  to  meat  is  that 
they  are  cheaper.  Immense  quantities  of  cab- 
bages, onions,  garlic,  carrots,  cucumbers,  toma- 
toes, and  other  kinds  of  vegetables  are  grown 
all  over  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire, 
and  there  are  few  families  so  poor  as  not  to 
be  able  to  give  a  relish  to  their  meals  by  the 
use   of  some    one   or   more   of  these.  , 

At  the  cottage  meal  a  basin  about  the  size 
of  a  small  breakfast  slop-bowl  is  placed  oppo- 
site each  person,  and  by  the  side  a  pair  of 
chopsticks,  while  in  the  middle  of  the  table 
stands  a  big  bowl  of  steaming  rice.  Each  per- 
son fills  his  basin  from  this  bowl,  and,  hold- 
ing it  up  to  his  chin  with  his  left  hand,  he 
transfers    its    contents    to    his   mouth   with    his. 


168  Food  and  Dress. 

chopsticks  at  an  astonishing  rate.  The  chop- 
sticks are  held  between  the  first  and  second, 
and  the  second  and  third  fingers ;  and  con- 
stant practice  enables  a  Chinamiin  to  lift  up 
and  hold  the  minutest  atoms  of  food,  oily  and 
slippery  as  they  often  are,  with  the  greatest 
ease.  To  most  foreigners  their  skilfnl  use  is 
well  nigh  impossible,  and  at  tlie  houses  of 
officials  and  others  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
entertaining  "foreign  devils,"  it  has  now  be- 
come the  practice,  in  deference  to  our  awk- 
wardness,  to  furnish    us  with    knives  and  forks. 

To  return  to  the  cottage  dinner.  Dotted 
about  on  the  table  are  small  bowls  containing 
vegetables,  or  fish,  or  meats,  as  the  case  may 
be,  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  '  seasoned  with 
soy  and  other  sauces.  Each  diner  helps  him- 
self* ^is  he  is  inclined  from  these  common  dishes 
with  his  chopsticks,  between  his  mouthfuls  of 
rice,  and  washes  all  down  either  with  tea  or 
warm  water.  Cold  water  is  never  drunk,  as 
it   is    considered    to   be    unwholesome. 

The  meats  most  commonly  eaten  are  pork, 
mutton,  goats'  flesh,  and  beef,  besides  fowls, 
ducks,  and  plieasants,  and,  in  the  north,  deer 
and    hares.     In    some    parts  of    the   country'   it 


An  Effectual  Hair-Restorer.  169 

must  be  confessed  that  less  savory  viands  find 
tlieir  place  on  the  dinner-table.  In  Canton,  for 
example,  dried  rats  have  a  recognized  place  in 
the  poulterers'  shops,  and  find  a  ready  market, 
not  only  among  those  who  have  a  taste  for 
them,  but  also  among  people  who  have  a  ten- 
dency to  baldness,  the  flesh  of  rats  being  con- 
sidered an  effectual  "  hair-restorer."  Horse-flesh 
is  also  exposed  for  sale,  and  there  are  even 
to  be  found  dog  and  cat  restaurants.  Describ- 
ing one  of  these  establishments,  from  personal 
acquaintance.  Archdeacon  Gray  says,  "  The  flesh 
is  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  fried  with  water- 
chestnuts  and  garlic  in  oil.  In  the  window  of 
the  restaurant  dogs'  carcasses  are  suspended,  for 
the  purpose,  I  suppose,  of  attracting  the  atten- 
tion of  passengers.  Placards  are  sometimes 
placed  above  the  door,  setting  forth  that  the 
flesh  of  black  dogs  and  cats  can  be  served  up 
at  a  moment's  notice.  On  the  walls  of  the 
dining-room  there  are  bills  of  fare.  The  fol- 
lowing  is   a   translation    of  one : 

Cat's  flesh,  one  basin  10  cents. 

Black  cat's  flesh,  one  small  basin,  5        " 

Wine,  one  bottle,  3        " 

"Wine,  one  small  bottle,  >  1  1-2  " 


170  Food  and  Dress. 

Congee,  one  basin,  2  cash. 

Ketchup,  one  basin,  '  3     " 

Black  dog's  grease,  1  tael,  4  cents. 

Black  cats',  eyes,  one  pair,  4        " 

All    guests  aining  at    this  restaurant  are    requested    to    be 
punctual   in  their  payments."* 

The  flesh  of  black  dogs  and  cats,  and  es- 
pecially the  former,  are  preferred  as  being  more 
nutritive ;  and  on  a  certain  day  in  the  begin- 
ning of  summer  it  is  customary,  in  the  south 
of  China,  for  people  to  partake  of  dog's  flesh 
to  fortify  themselves  against  the  coming  heat, 
and  as  a  preventative  against  disease.  In  the 
province  of  Shan-tung  dog-hams  are  cured  and 
exported ;  but  the  price  of  these  makes  their 
general  use  prohibitory,  and  places  them  within 
the  reach  only  of  wealthy  gourmets,  who  have 
a  taste  for  this  particular  food.  In  the  im- 
mense Encyclopaedia  compiled  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Emperor  K'ang-he,  there  is  a  re- 
ceipt for  hashed  dog,  which,  by  the  number 
of  condiments,  the  quantity  of  wine,  and  pro- 
fusion of  adjuncts  which  are  prescribed,  seems 
to  indicate   that  it  was  made  by  some  one  who 

*  The  poorer  classes  and  epicures  are  the  most  addicted  to  these  articles  of  diet, 
though  they  are  also  used  for  hygienic  purposes  by  some. 


The  Courses  of  a  Feast.  171 

liked    a    good    dish,   and    disliked    the   taste   of 
dog. 

Among  the  wealthier  classes  the  use  of  rice 
is  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  increased 
quantity  of  meat  or  jfish  eaten,  and  at  a  dinner- 
party of  the  better  kind  it  scarcely  finds  a 
place.  On  such  an  occasion  the  table  is  spread 
with  what  in  Russia  would  be  called  Zakuska, 
or  dinette,  consisting  of  numbers  of  small  dishes 
containing  fruits  —  fresh,  dried,  and  candied; 
chopped  eggs;  ham,  and  other  tasty  morsels. 
The  feast  begins  by  the  host  pouring  out  a 
libation,  and  then  taking  wine  generally  with 
his  guests,  who  raise  tlie  small  wine-cups, 
which  are  not  much  bigger  than  thimbles,  to 
their  lips  witli  the  right  hand,  touching  them 
with  the  left,  and  drink  off  their  contents. 
Next  follows  a  succession  of  courses,  each 
consisting  of  a  single  dish,  between  which 
pipes  are  handed  round  and  a  few  whiffs  en- 
joyed. Frequently  the  dinner  is  enlivened  by 
the  presence  of  singing-girls,  or  a  play  is  per- 
formed for  the  amusement  of  the  guests.  In 
the  absence,  however,  of  all  such  attractions 
the  game  of  Che-mei,  the  Italian  Mora,  some- 
times  serves   to  make  the  interval  between  the 


172  Food  and  Dress. 

courses  seem  shorter.  Mr.  Giles,  in  bis  "Chi- 
nese Sketclies,"'  gives  the  following  menu  of  a 
dinner,  which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  sort 
of  viands  offered  by  a  Chinese  gentleman  to 
his   guests  :  — 

Sharks'  fins  with  crab  sauce. 

Pigeons'  eggs  stewed  with  rausliiooms. 

Sliced  sea-slugs  in  chiclcen  broth,  wiili  ham. 

Wild  duck  and  Shantung  cabbage. 

Fried  fish. 

Lumps  of  pork  fat  fried  in  rice-flour. 

Stewed  lily-roots. 

Cliicken  mashed  to  pulp,  with  ham. 

Stewed  bamboo-shoots. 

Stewed  shell-fish. 

Fried  slices  of  pheasant- 

Musliroom  broth. 

Remove. — Two  dishes  of  fried  pudding,  one  sweet,  the  other 
salt. 

Sweetened  duck. 

Strips  of  boned  chicken  fried  in  oil. 

Boiled  fish,  with  soy. 

Lumps  of  parboiled  mutton  fried  in  pork  fat. 

Frogs  form  a  common  dish  among  poor  peo- 
ple and  are,  it  is  needless  to  sa}',  very  good 
eating.  They  are  caught  with  a  rod  and  line, 
with   a   young    live    frog    lately    emerged    from 


CORMORANT-FISHING    FROM    A    RAFT.  173 


Frogs,  Locusts  and   Grubs.  V15> 

the  tadpole  stage,  as  bait.  The  young  frog 
which  is  tied  ou  to  the  line,  is  bobbed  up 
and  down  in  the  water,  and  it  is  as  a  result 
of  their  snapping  at  it,  that  its  elders  are 
jerked  out  on  to  the  bank.  In  some  parts  of 
the  country  locusts  and  grasshoppers  are  eaten. 
At  T'ien-tsin,  men  may  commonly  be  seen 
standing  at  the  corner's  of  the  streets  frying- 
locusts  over  portable  fires,  just  as  among  our- 
'selves  chestnuts  are  cooked  at  the  curbstone. 
Ground-grubs,  silkworms,  and  water-snakes  are 
also   occasionally   treated   as   food. 

The  sea,  lakes,  and  rivers,  abound  in  fish, 
which  are  caught  in  almost  as  many  ways  as 
there  are  found  different  species.  Cod,  mack- 
erel, soles,  shark,  herring,  shad,  mullet,  crabs, 
tortoise,  turtles,  prawns,  crawfish,  shrimps, 
etc.,  are  supplied  by  the  ocean,  while  the- 
lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers,  swarm  with  carp,, 
tench,  eels,  perch,  bream,  and  other  kinds.  As 
fish  forms  a  staple  food  of  the  people,  there 
is  every  inducement  to  perfect  the  fisherman's 
art,  and  the  natural  ingenuit}'^  of  Chinamen 
has  enabled  them  to  secure  the  greatest  quan- 
tity of  fish  with  the  least  possible  trouble. 
The    net     and     line    are    generally    used,    but 


176  Food  and  Dress. 

iu  places  where  it  is  difficult  to  drag  a  net, 
or  where  the  fish  do  not  easily  yield  them- 
selves up  as  victims  to  the  line,  other  agen- 
cies are  brought  to  bear.  On  some  rivers  and 
lakes  cormorants  are  the  chosen  instruments 
for  landing  the  prey.  The  fisherman  launches 
his  raft,  which  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet 
wide  and  about  twenty  feet  long,  carrying  on 
it  three  or  four  cormorants  and  a  basket  for 
the  fish.  Each  cormorant  has  a  ring  loosely' 
fastened  round  his  neck,  and  when  tlie  man 
has  paddled  the  raft  into  a  suitable  spot  he 
gently  pushes  one  of  the  birds  into  the  water. 
It  instantl}'  dives,  and,  having  caught  its  prey, 
rises  to  the  surface  and  swims  towards  the  raft. 
As  it  approaches,  the  man  throws  a  land- 
ing-net over  both  the  bird  and  the  fish,  and 
lifts  them  on  to  the  raft.  Great  pains  are 
taken  in  training  the  cormorants,  and  it  is 
seldom  that  they  refuse  to  obey  their  master. 
Occasionally  they  show  considerable  intelli- 
gence and  two  or  three  have  been  known  to 
help  to  secure  fish  too  large  for  a  single 
bird.  On  some  rivers  fishermen  use,  at 
night,  a  long,  low  boat,  liaving  a  white  var- 
nished  board    inclining    from    the    side    to   the 


Gw'leful  Fishermen.  Ill 

water.  As  the  boat  is  propelled  along  in  the 
moonlight,  a  stone  which  is  towed  alongside, 
of  course  below  the  surface,  makes  a  rushing 
noise,  which  so  alarms  the  fish  that,  attracted 
by  the  vainished  board  they  spring  at  it,  and 
generally  over  it  into  the  boat.  The  fear  felt  by 
fish  at  hearing  noise,  and  the  attraction  exercised 
over  them  by  light  is  well  known,  and  taking 
advantage  of  these  peculiarities.  Chinamen  drive 
them,  by  beating  the  water,  into  nets  set  for 
their  reception.  Sometimes,  at  night,  a  circu- 
lar net  is  thrown  off  from  boats.  In  the 
centre  a  boat  is  stationed,  on  the  bows  of 
which  a  bright  fire  is  kept  burning.  Tiie  other 
boats  surround  the  outside  of  the  circle  at 
some  little  distance,  and  their  occupants  beat 
the  water  with  bamboo  poles.  The  fish,  fright- 
ened by  the  noise,  and  attracted  by  the  fire, 
swim  into  the  net,  and  their  fate  is  sealed. 
Spearing  fish  with  tridents  is  also  common, 
and  sharp,  unbaited  hooks,  attached  to  lines 
fastened  to  floating  buoys,  are  thrown  into 
lakes  and  rivers,  so  as  to  catch  any  fish  which 
may   swim  against   them. 

All   fishing-boats   of  sufficient  size  have  tanks 

of  water    on    board,   into    which    the     fish    are 
12 


178  Wood  and  Dress. 

thrown  as  soon  as  they  are  caught,  and  are 
then  carried  fresh  to  market,  where  the  same 
care  is  generally  taken  to  keep  them  alive 
until  they  find  purchasers.  Chinamen  are  not 
content  to  depend  entirely  on  the  open  water 
for  their  supply  of  fish.  They  breed  large 
quantities  themselves.  The  spring  tides  bring 
up  the  rivers'  fish  which  deposit  their  spawn 
among  the  grass  and  rushes  growing  at  the  edge 
of  the  water.  As  soon  as  the  young  appear, 
they  are  caught  in  nets,  and  put  into  tanks 
in  boats,  where  they  are  carefully  fed  and 
tended  until  they  are  large  enough  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  ponds  prepared  for  them.  Here 
they  are  fed  with  paste  and  the  yolks  of  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  and  are,  eventually,  drawn  out  to 
repay  their  nurses  for  the  trouble  they  have 
had   in    rearing   them. 

Oysters  and  cockles  are  also  regularl}-  fished 
for,  and  form  a  common  article  of  food,  and 
so  also  are  mussels,  which,  however,  are  some- 
times in  another  way  made  a  source  of  gain. 
When  fresh  caught,  minute  images  of  Buddha 
are  put  into  the  shell,  and  the  mussels  are 
thrown  into  ponds,  where  they  are  allowed  to 
remain    for   some    time.     On    being    fished    up 


Duck-boats  and  Poultry  Farms.  179 

again  and  opened,  the  little  images  are  found 
covered  with  a  coating  of  mother-of-pearl,  and, 
in  this  state,  find  a  ready  sale  among  the  super- 
stitious. In  the  same  way  artificial  pearls  are 
produced. 

The  same  care  in  the  production  of  fish  is 
extended  to  that  of  ducks  and  poultry.  Not 
onl}'  are  ducks  bred  in  great  quantities  in  the 
usual  way,  but  eggs  are  artificially  hatched  in 
immense  numbers.  As  soon  as  the  ducklings 
make  their  appearance,  they  are  sold  to  men 
who  make  it  their  business  to  rear  tliem  and 
prepare  them  for  the  market.  Many  thousands 
are  often  to  be  seen  in  an  establishment  of 
this  sort.  Sometimes  the  purchaser  is  owner 
of  a  duck-boat,  on  which  he  keeps  his  numer- 
ous broods.  Once  or  twice  a  day  he  lands 
them  on  the  river-bank  to  feed,  and  they  soon 
learn  to  walk  without  hesitation,  along  a  plank 
to  and  fro  from  the  boat  to  the  shore.  Im- 
mense quantities  are  thus  reared  on  the  rivers 
in  China,  as  a  proof  of  which  Archdeacon 
Gray  mentions  that  after  a  severe  typhoon  at 
Canton  in  1862,  during  which  a  number  of 
duck  boats  were  upset,  the  ducks  released  from 
captivity  were  so  numerous,  "  that  for  upwards 


180  Food  and  Dress. 

of  a  mile  the  surface  of  the  Canton  River 
was  crowded  with  them."  Poultry  farms  are 
also  numerous  and  large.  Eggs  are  cooked  in 
various  ways  as  among  ourselves,  and  sometimes 
are  boiled  hard  and  preserved  by  one  of  sev- 
eral processes  until  they  are  six  weeks  or  two 
mouths  old,  when  they  are  -considered  ready 
for   use. 

No  use  whatever  is  made  of  cow's  milk  by 
the  Chinese,  though,  occasionally,  human  milk 
is  given  to  old  people  as  a  restorative.  The 
Mongolians,  however,  use  it  freely,  and  make 
a  kind  of  rancid  butter  from  it  of  which  they 
are  very  fond,  a  conclusive  proof  of  the  wide' 
gulf   which   separates   their   tastes   from   ours. 

In  matters  of  dress,  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, the  Chinese  must  be  acknowledged  to 
have  used  a  wise  discretion.  They  wear  noth- 
ing that  is  tight-fitting,  and  make  a  greater 
difference  between  their  summer  and  winter 
clothing  than  is  customar}'  among  ourselves. 
The  usual  dress  of  a  coolie  in  summer  is  a 
loose-fitting  pair  of  cotton  trousers,  and  an 
equally  loose  jacket ;  but  the  same  man  in 
winter  will  be  seen  wearing  quilted  cotton 
clothes,   or,    if    he   should    be    an    inhabitant    of 


CHINESE    HEAD-URESS.   BRACELETS   AND    EAR    ORNAMENTS 


Qrihs  in  Sleeves.  183 

the  northern  provinces,  a  sheepskin  robe,  super- 
added to  an  abundance  of  warm  clothing  in- 
termediate between  it  and  his  shirt.  By  the 
wealthier  classes  silk,  linen,  and  silk  gauze  are 
much  worn  in  the  summer,  and  woollen  or 
more  or  less  handsome  fur  clothes  in  the  winter. 
Among  such  people  it  is  customary,  except  in 
the  seclusion  of  their  homes,  to  wear,  both  in 
summer  and  winter,  long  tunics  reaching  to 
the  ankles.  Often  these  are  fastened  round  the 
waist  by  a  belt,  to  which  are  attached  a  num- 
ber of  ornamental  appendages,  such  as  a  purse, 
snuff-bottle,  tobacco-pouch,  etc.  The  sleeves 
of  the  tunics  are  made  long  enough  to  cover 
the  hands,  and  partly  serve  the  purposes  of 
pockets.  The  expression  "a  sleeve  full  of 
snuff"  is  not  at  all  uncommon  in  Chiiiese 
poetry,  and  small  editions  of  books,  especially 
of  the  classics,  are  called  "  sleeve  editions,"  in 
reference  probably  to  the  practice,  common  to 
candidates  at  the  examinations,  of  concealing 
''  cribs "    in   their    sleeves. 

In  summer  non-official  Chinamen  leave  their 
heads  uncovered,  and,  though  thus  unprotected 
from  the  effects  of  the  sun,  do  not  seem  to 
suffer   any   inconvenience  from    the    great   heat. 


184  Food  and  BreBs. 

Occasionally  coolies  doing  heavy  work,  fasten 
a  fan  so  as  to  ward  off  the  sun's  rays,  by 
means  of  their  queues,  which  are  then  wound 
round  their  heads,  instead  of  being  allowed  to 
liang   down   the    back  in    the    ordinar}'  way. 

The  dress  of  the  mandarins  is  strictly  de- 
fined by  sumptuary  laws,  and  their  ranks  are 
distinguished  by  badges  worn  on  the  breast 
and  back  of  their  robes,  and  by  the  knobs  or 
buttons  fixed  on  the  top  of  the  cap.  The 
civilian  badges  are  all  representations  of  birds, 
while  those  J  worn  by  militar}^  men,  as  indica- 
ting the  fierceness  of  their  nature,  are  like- 
nesses of  beasts.  Thus  the  first  of  the  nine 
civilian  ranks  wears  a  Manchurian  crane ;  the 
second,  a  golden  pheasant ;  the  third,  a  peacock ; 
the  fourth,  a  wild  goose ;  the  fifth,  a  silver 
pheasant ;  tlie  sixth,  a  lesser  eyret ;  the  seventh, 
a  mandarin  duck  ;  the  eightli,  a  quail ;  the 
ninth,  a  long-tailed  jay.  The  military  officers  have 
also  nine  insignia,  which  are  as  follows:  First, 
the  unicorn  ;  second,  the  lion  ;  third,  the  leopard ; 
fourth,  the  tiger;  fifth,  the  black  bear;  sixth, 
the  mottled  bear  or  tiger  cat ;  seventh,  the 
tiger  cat ;  eighth,  the  seal ;  and  ninth,  the  rhi- 
noceros. 


Badges  of  the   Orders.  185 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  present  dynasty, 
distinguibhiiio;  buttons  have  been  added  to  the 
caps  in  the  case  of  both  civil  and  military 
mandarins,  and  these  are  distributed  among 
the  nine  ranks  in  the  following  order:  The 
first  two,  red  coral ;  the  third,  clear  blue ;  tlie 
fourth,  lapis  lazuli ;  the  fifth,  quartz  crystal ; 
the  sixth,  opaque  white  stone ;  and  the  last 
three,  gilt.  In  cases  where  the  same  colored 
stone  is  worn  by  two  ranks,  that  on  the  cap 
of  the  inferior  one  is  of  a  deeper  hue.  In  the 
same  way  the  emperor  wears  a  pearl  on  his 
cap,  and  this,  together  with  the  remainder  of 
his  attire,  is  quite  plain  and  unadorned.  On 
the  approach  of  summer  an  edict  is  issued  fix- 
ing the  day  upon  which  the  summer  costume 
is  to  be  adopted  throughout  the  empire,  and 
again,  as  winter  draws  near,  the  time  for  put- 
ting on  the  winter  dress  is  announced  in  the 
same  formal  manner.  Fine  straw  or  bamboo 
forms  the  material  of  the  summer  hat,  the  out- 
side of  which  is  covered  with  fine  silk,  over 
which  falls  a  tassel  of  red  silk  cords  from 
the  top.  At  this  season  also  the  thick  silk 
robes  and  heavy  padded  jackets  worn  in  win- 
ter are  exchanged  for  light   silk  or  satin  tunics. 


186  Food  and  Dresi. 

The    winter   cap   has   a   turned-up  brim,   and  is 
covered    with   sathi,    with   a   black    cloth    lining, 


A    HONG    KONG   WOMAN. 


and  as  in    the  case  of  the  summer  cap,  a  tassel 
of  red   silk   covers   the   entire   crown. 


Maidens  and    Wives. 


187 


The  wives  of  mandarins  wear  the  same  em- 
broidered insignia  on  their  dresses  as  their  hus- 
bands, and  their  style  of  dress,  as  well   as  that 


TYPES   OF   CHINKSE   GIRLS. 


of  Chinese  women  generally,  bears  a  resem- 
blance to  the  attire  of  the  men.  They  wear 
a  loose-fitting  tunic  which  reaches  below  the 
knee,  and  trousers  which  are  drawn  in  at  the 
ankle    after   the  bloomer   fashion.     On    state  oo- 


188  Food  and  Dre%%. 

casions  they  wear  a  richl}'  embroidered  petti- 
coat coming  down  to  the  feet,  which  hangs 
square  both  before  and  behind,  and  is  plaited 
at  the  sides  like  a  Highlander's  kilt.  The 
mode  of  doing  the  hair  varies  in  almost  every 
province.  At  Canton  the  women  of  the  people 
plaster  their  back-hair  with  a  kind  of  bandoline, 
into  the  shape  of  a  teapot  handle,  and  adorn 
the  sides  with  pins  and  ornaments,  while  tlie 
young  girls  proclaim  their  unmarried  state  by 
cutting  their  hair  in  a  fringe  across  their  fore- 
heads, after  a  fashion  not  unknown  among  our- 
selves. In  most  parts  of  the  countrj',  flowers, 
natural  when  obtainable,  and  artificial  when 
not  so,  are  largely  used  to  deck  out  the  head- 
dresses, and  considerable  taste  is  shown  in  the 
choice  of  colors  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  arranged.  Thus  far  there  is  nothing  to 
find  fault  witli  in  female  fashion  in  Cliina, 
])nt  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  way  in 
which  they  treat  their  faces  and  feet.  In  many 
countries  the  secret  art  of  removing  traces  of 
the  ravages  of  time  with  the  paint-brush  has 
been  and  is  pra'cti^d ;  but  by  an  extravagant, 
and  to  European  eyes,  hideous  use  of  pigments 
and    cosmetics,    Chinese   girls   not   onl}-    conceal 


The  Deformed  Feet.  189 

the  fresh  complexion  of  youth,  but  produce 
those  very  disfigurements  which  furnish  the  only 
possible  excuse  for  artificial  complexions.  Their 
poets  also  have  declared  that  a  woman's  eye- 
brows should  be  arched  like  a  rainbow  or 
shaped  like  a  willow-leaf,  and  the  consequence 
is  that,  wishing  to  act  up  to  the  ideal  thus 
pictured,  Chinawomen  with  the  help  of  tweez- 
ers, remove  all  the  hairs  of  their  eyebrows 
which  straggle  the  least  out  of  the  required 
line,  and  when  the  task  becomes  impossible 
even  with  the  help  of  these  instruments,  the 
paint-brush  or  a  stick  of  charcoal  is  brought 
into  requisition.  Altogether  the  face  of  a  be- 
dizened Chinese  lady  is  a  miserable  sight.  The 
ghastly  white  of  the  plastered  complexion,  the 
ruddled  cheeks,  the  artificial  eyebrows,  and  the 
brilliantly  painted  lips  may,  as  the  abstract 
picture  of  a  poet's  brain,  be  admirable,  but 
when  seen  in  the  concrete,  can  in  no  sense 
be  called  other  than  repulsive.  A  comparison 
of  one  such  painted  lily  with  the  natural, 
healthy  complexion,  bright  eyes,  laughing  lips^ 
and  dimpled  cheeks  of  a  Canton  boat  girl,  for 
example,  is  enough  to  vindicate  Nature's  claim, 
to   superiority   over  art   a   thousand-fold. 


190  Food  and  Dress. 

The  chief  offence  of  Chinese  women  is  in 
the  matter  of  their  feet.  Even  on  the  score 
of  fashion  it  is  diflBcult  to  excuse  a  practice 
which  in  the  first  instance  causes  great  and 
continued  pain,  and  affects  injuriously  the 
physique  of  the  victims  during  the  whole  of 
their  lives.  Various  explanations  are  current 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  custom  of  deforming 
the  women's  feet.  Some  say  that  it  is  an  at- 
tempt servilely  to  imitate  the  peculiarly  shaped 
foot  of  a  certaiii  beautiful  empress;  others 
that  it  is  a  device  intended  to  act  as  a  re- 
straint on  the  gadding-about  tendencies  of 
women.  However  that  may  be,  the  practice 
is  universal  except  among  the  Manchoos  and 
the  Hakka  population  at  Canton.  The  feet 
are  first  bound  when  the  child  is  about  five 
years  old.  The  four  smaller  toes  are  bent 
under  the  foot,  and  the  instep  is  forced  up- 
wards and  backwards.  At  the  same  time,  the 
shoes  worn,  having  high  heels,  the  foot  be- 
comes as  it  were  clubbed  and  loses  all  elas- 
ticity. The  consequence  is  that  the  women 
walk  as  on  pegs,  and  the  calf  of  the  leg  hav- 
ing no  exercise  shrivels  up.  The  degree  of 
severity  with  which   the   feet   are   bound,  differs 


Women  and    Walking. 


191 


widely  in  the  various  ranks  of  society,  and 
women  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life  are  often 
able  to  move  about  with  ease.  '  Most  ladies, 
on    the    other    hand,    are    practically    debarred 


MOTHEK   AND   CHILD. 


from  walking  at  all,  and  are  dependent  on 
their  sedan-chairs,  and  sometimes  even  on  the 
backs  of  their  attendants,  for  all  locomotion 
beyond    their    own   doors.      Even    in   this    case 


192 


Food  and  Dress. 


habit  becomes  a  second  nature,  and  fashion 
triumphs  over  sense.  No  mother,  however  keen 
may  be  her  recollection  of  her  sufferings  as  a 
child,  or   however   conscious  she   may  be  of  the 


^^^3^^ 


COMPBESSED   FEET. 


inconveniences  and  ills  arising  from  her  de- 
formed feet,  would  ever  think  of  saving  her 
own  child  from  like  immediate  torture  and  per- 
manent evil.  Further,  there  is  probably  less 
excuse   for    such    a    practice    in    China    than   in 


A    STREET    BARBER    AT    WORK. 


13 


193 


Barbers  and  Pig-tails.  196 

any  other  country,  for  the  hands  and  feet  of 
both  men  and  women  are  naturally  both  small 
and  finely  shaped.  There  is,  liowever,  no  idol 
more  difficult  to  overthrow  than  established 
custom,  and  there  must  be  a  complete  revolu- 
tion in  the  national  tastes  and  ideas  before 
the  much-persecuted  Chinese  vi^omen  will  be 
allowed  free  use  of  the  very  pretty  feet  with 
which    nature    has   endov.ed    ihem. 

The  male  analogue  of  the  women's  compressed 
feet  is  the  shaven  forepart  of  the  head  and  the 
plaited  queue.  .  The  custom  of  thus  treating 
the  hair  was  imposed  on  the  people  by  the 
first  emperor  of  the  present  dynasty  (1644). 
Up  to  that  time  the  Chinese  had  allowed  the 
hair  to  grow  long,  and  were  in  the  habit  of 
drawing  it  up  into  a  tuft  on  the  top  of  the 
head.  The  introduction  of  the  queue  at  the 
bidding  of  the  Manchurian  conqueror  was  in- 
tended as  a  badge  of  conquest,  and  as  such 
was  at  first  unwillingly  adopted  by  the  people. 
For  nearl}^  a  century  tlie  natives  of  outlying 
parts  of  the  Empire  refused  to  submit  their 
heads  to  the  razor,  and  in  many  districts  the 
authorities  rewarded  converts  to  the  new  way 
by    presents    of   money.     As    the   custom  spread. 


196  Food  and  Dress. 

these  bribes  were  discontinued,  and  the  ccin- 
verse  action  of  treating  those  who  refused  to 
conform  with  severity,  completed  the  conversion 
of  the  empire.  At  the  present  day  every  China- 
man who  is  not  in  open  rebellion  to  the  throne 
shaves  his  head,  with  the  t^xception  of  the 
crown,  where  the  hair  is  allowed  to  grow  to  its 
full  length.  This  hair  is  carefully  plaited,  and 
falls  down  the  back  forming  what  is  commonly 
known  as  the  "  pig-tail."  Great  pride  is  taken, 
especially  in  the  South,  in  having  as  long  and 
as  thick  a  queue  as  possible,  and  when  nature 
has  been  niggardly  in  her  supply  of  natural 
growth,  the  deficiency  is  supplemented  by  the 
insertion  of  silk  in  the  plait.  The  Northerners 
are  less  given  to  this  form  of  vanity  than  their 
Southern  brethren,  and  are  as  a  rule  content 
to  tie  the  ends  of  the  queue  plaits  with  a  piece 
of  silk.  Among  all  classes  great  value  is  at- 
tached to  the  possession  of  the  queue,  and,  in 
the  commonest  forms  of  abuse,  there  is  gener- 
ally claimed  for  the  cfbject  of  opprobrium  an 
additional  title  to  infamy  in  tiie  assertion  that 
he   is   woo  peen^   "  tail-less." 

As  a   general   rule  the   head  is  shaved  about 
once   in  ten  days,  though  men  who  are    partieu- 


Razors  and  Shaving-Soap. 


197 


lar  as  to  their  appearance  do  not  allow  their 
hair  to  grow  half  that  time.  As  it  is  impos- 
sible for  a  mail  to  shave  his  own  head,  the 
barber's  trade  is  a  large  and  flourishing  one, 
and   is    carried    oji  in   shops,  and   in  the   streets 


men's  faces. 

by  itinerant  barbers,  who  carry  suspended  at 
the  two  ends  of  a  bamboo  slung  on  the  shoul- 
ders, all  the  implements  of  their  trade,  to- 
gether with  a  stool  for  the  customer  to  sit 
upon  during  the  operation.     Among   the  riel.  \t 


198 


Food  and  Dress. 


is  customary  to  summon  a  barber  to  the  house, 
and  to  mosi  large  yarauns  there  is  a  member 
of  the  fraternity  attached,  who  gains  his  live- 
lihood  by  keeping   the    heads   of  the   occupanw 


ja  street  scene.. 


In  order.  The  Chinese  razor  consists  of  a  short 
blade,  somewhat  ii;  the  shape  of  a  rounded 
isosceles  triangle,  the  lOng  side  being  the  edge. 
Hot  water  instead  of  soap  is  used  to  facilitate 
the  operation   of   dhavin^r,   which    is  extended  to 


A  Barber  s    Vacation.  199 

the  down  on  the  cheeks.  A  Chinaman's  face 
is  singularly  devoid  of  hair.  Whiskers  are  very 
seldom  seen,  and  the  mustache  is  only  allowed 
to  grow  after  a  man  has  arrived  at  the  age 
of  forty  or  upwards.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
death  of  a  near  relative,  it  is  customary  to 
allow  the  hair  to  grow  for  a  time  as  a  sign 
of  mental  distraction  from  excessive  grief,  and 
on  the  death  of  an  emperor  an  edict  is  usually 
issued  forbidding  barbers  to  ply  their  trade 
for  a   space   of  a  hundred   days. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


AGRICULTDBE. 


T 


HOUGH  trade  prac- 
tically holdi*  its 
place  as  next  in  esti- 
mation to  the  maudari- 
nate,  in  theory  it  should 
follow  both  the  careers 
of  husbandry  and  of  the 
mechanical  arts.  From 
time  immemorial  the 
Cb'iese  have  held  agri- 
cultuid  in  the  highest 
esteem,  as  being  the 
means  by  which  the  soil 
has  been  induced  to  sup- 
ply the  primar}-  want  of  the  people  of  the  empire 
—  food.  All  land  is  held  in  freehold  from  the 
Government,  and  principally  by  clans,  or  fam- 
ilies,   who    pay   an    annual    tax    to    the   Crown 

2u0 


Agricultural  Boards. 


201 


amounting  to  about  oue  tenth  of  the  produce. 
On  the  death  of  the  proprietor  of  an  estate 
it  descends  to  his  eldest  son,  but  hif>  possession 
is   hampered   by   the    law,  which   permits  all  his 


A    CHINESE   FARM. 


younger  brothers  and  their  families  to  settle 
on  parts  of  the  inheritance.  Very  often  an 
arrangement  is  made  b}'  which  the  cadets  are 
bought   off,  but   otherwise   the   heir   has   to  sub- 


202  Agriculture. 

mit,  nolens  volens,  to  their  presence.  When 
property  changes  hands,  the  fact  has  to  be 
registered  at  the  office  of  the  district  magis- 
trate, and  the  new  owner  becomes  responsible 
for  the  payment  of  the  Crown-tax.  As  long 
as  this  tax  is  paid  regularly,  the  owners  are 
never  dispossessed,  and  estates  thus  remain  in 
the  hands  of  clans  and  families  for  many  gen- 
erations. 

Li  order  to  see  that  farming-operations  are 
properly  conducted,  -agricultural  boards  are  es- 
tablished in  almost  every  district,  consisting  of 
old  men  learned  in  agriculture.  By  these  Aet- 
erans  a  careful  watch  is  kept  over  the  work 
of  the  neighboring  farmers,  and  in  case  of  any 
dereliction  of  duty,  or  neglect  of  the  prescribed 
modes  of  farming,  the  offender  is  summoned 
before  the  district  magistrate,  who  inflicts  the 
punishment  that  he  considers  })roportionate  to 
the  offence.  It  is  illustrative  of  the  mechani- 
cal ingenuity  of  the  Chinese,  as  well  as  of 
their  absence  of  scientific  knowledge,  that  their 
appliances  for  irrigating  the  fields  and  winnow- 
ing the  corn  are  excellent,  while  those  for 
getting  the  most  out  of  land  are  of  a  rude 
and   primitive  kind.     The   plongh,  which  is  gen- 


Farm  Processes.  203 

orally  drawn  by  a  buffalo  or  an  ox,  does 
scarcely  more  than  scratch  the  earth,  and  even 
this  is  only  used  in  the  large  fields,  the  farm- 
ers of  small  enclosures  being  content  to  break 
up  the  surface  soil  with  their  hoes.  Spades 
find  no  place  among  the  implements  of  farmers 
and  gardeners,  who  also  know  nothing  of  wheel- 
barrows for  agricultural  purposes.  A  small 
harrow  is  used  to  break  up  the  clods  left  by 
the  plough  or  hoe,  and  a  reaping-hook  gathers 
in  the  crops  wliich  grow  up  from  the  scarcely- 
turned  soil.  The  absence  of  good  farming  in 
this  respect  naturally  necessitates,  in  most  parts, 
the  constant  employment  of  manure,  which  is 
applied  frequently  and  in  great  quantities.  The 
varieties  are  endless,  being  not  only  those  of 
the  kinds  employed  among  ourselves,  but  con- 
sists also  of  the  sweepings  from  the  streets, 
feathers  of  birds,  the  refuse  hair  from  barbers' 
shops,  the  remnants  of  exploded  crackers,  etc. 
Of  course,  the  climate  and  the  nature  of  a 
district  determine  the  kind  of  farming  appi-o- 
priate  to  it.  Agriculturally,  China  may  be  said 
to  be  divided  by  the  Yang-tsze  Keang  into 
two  parts.  South  of  that  river,  speaking  gen- 
erally,  the   soil    and    climate    point    to    rice   as 


204  Agriculture. 

the  appropriate  crop,  while  to  the  north  he 
vast  plains  which,  as  clearly,  are  best  for  cereals. 
Over  the  huge  tract  of  loess*  country  in  North- 
ern China,  little  or  no  cultivation  is  necessary, 
nor  is  the  use  of  manure  required.  A  scratch- 
ing of  the  light,  friable  soil  sufficient  to  enable 
the  farmer  to  sow  his  seed,  is  all  that  is 
needed  in  favorable  years  to  secure  a  good 
crop.  Throughout  Nature  there  are  always 
drawbacks  to  otherwise  exceptionally  favored 
spots,  and  this  "Garden  of  China"  is  depend- 
ent for  its  fruits  on  frequent  showers.  Water 
runs  so  quickly  through  the  soil  that  all  traces 
and  effects  of  the  heaviest  rains  soon  disappear, 
and  a  constant  succession  of  temperate  rain- 
falls form,  therefore,  the  kind  of  moisture  best 
suited  to  it.  When  these  fail,  the  crops  fall 
off,  and,  after  such  dr}"-  seasons,  famine  neces- 
sarily follows.  The  surface  being  far  above 
the  water-level,  irrigation  is  next  to  impossible, 
and  the  soil,  dried  to  a  fine  powder,  blows  away, 
leaving  the  seeds  exposed  to  the  destructive 
influences  of  the  sun  and  wind.  On  the  allu- 
vial plain  of  Chih-li  the  crops  are  not  as  large 
as  those  gathered  on  the  loess  in  a  good   year, 

*  Loess  is  an  alluvial  deposit  of  a  loamy  nature. 


Agricultural  Boards.  205 

but  on  the  other  hand  they  are  not  liable  to  the 
same  extreme  vicissitudes.  The  last  drought 
was  as  severe  in  Chih-li  as  in  Shanse,  but  the 
extremity  of  want  was  much  more  felt  in  the 
latter  province,  and  in  those  covered  with  loess, 
than  in  Chili-li.  Millet  Indian  corn,  wheat  and 
barley,  are  largely  grown  in  the  northern  half 
of  the    empire. 

An  entirely  different  system  is  pursued  in 
the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  rice-fields  are 
fenced  in  with  low  banks,  the  surface  of  soil 
being  kept  as  much  on  a  level  as  possible. 
Manure  in  large  quantities  is  first  of  all  strewn 
over  the  fields,  which  are  then  flooded  with 
water.  When  in  this  condition  the  farmer 
wades  on  to  the  ground  with  his  plough  and 
buffalo,  and  turns  up  the  slush  and  mud  until 
the  manure  has  become  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  soil.  His  next  object  is  to  discover,  by 
means  of  his  almanac,  or  by  the  advice  of  a 
fortune-teller,  a  propitious  day  for  sowing  his 
seed.  This  is  generally  sown  in  one  corner  of 
the  field,  and  the  plants,  as  soon  as  they  have 
grown  to  a  sufficient  size,  are  transplanted  in 
straight   rows. 

The   necessity  for   a   copious   suppl}'  of  water 


206  Agriculture, 

continues  during  the  early  growth  of  the  plant, 
and  as  this  supply  is  not  by  any  means  always 
obtainable  from  the  usual  resources  of  nature, 
artificial  irrigation  has  to  be  largely  resorted 
to.  In  securing  the  constant  supply  of  water 
thus  needed,  the  mechanical  genius  of  the 
people  has  full  play,  and  the  contrivances  in- 
vented and  employed  by  them  are  ingenious 
and  effective.  If  the  difference  of  level  be- 
tween the  supply  of  water  (either  a  river  or 
a  pond),  and  the  field  to  be  irrigated,  be  but 
slight,  a  bucket  held  between  two  men,  by 
ropes  attached  to  its  side,  is  commonly  used. 
The  men  stand  on  the  bank  of  the  field,  and 
by  a  constantly  swinging  motion  fill  the  bucket 
and  empty  it  on  to  the  soil.  When  the  differ- 
ence of  level  is  such  as  to  make  this  plan  im- 
possible, a  water-wheel  with  an  endless  chain- 
pump  is  u?ed.  This  ingenious  contrivance  is 
thus  described  by  Mr.  Doolittle :  "  One  end  of 
the  box  in  which  the  chain,  or  rather  rope, 
and  its  buckets  pass,  is  placed  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees,  more  or  less,  with  the  river, 
canal,  or  pond,  whence  the  water  is  to  be 
.brought  upon  the  neighboring  fields.  This  box 
is   open   at   the   top   and   both   ends,   and   made 


Water-  Wheels. 


207 


very  strong  and  light,  one  man  carrying  the 
whole  apparatus  with  ease  on  his  shoulders. 
The  chain,  with  its  buckets,  passes  over  a 
horizontal    shaft,    which    is    supported    by    two 


CHINESE   AGRICULTUKE. 


perpendicular  posts.  One  or  more  persons, 
steadying  themselves  by  leaning  upon  a  hori- 
zontal pole  four  or  five  feet  higher  than 
the   shaft,  and   by  walking   or    stepping    briskly 


208  Agriadture. 

on  short,  radiating  arms  cause  it  to  revolve  on 
its  axis,  bringing  up  the  water,  which  pours 
out  of  the  upper  end  of  the  box.  The  faster 
the  men  walk,  or  step,  the  greater  the  quantity 
of  water  pumped  up." 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  oxen  or  don- 
keys are  employed  to  turn  the  water-wheels, 
by  means  of  horizontal  cogged  wheels  which 
turn  the  shaft  over  which  the  buckets  pass. 
Occasionally,  when  practicable,  a  stream  supplies 
the  motive-power,  which  transports  a  portion  of 
itself  to  the  field  above.  When  the  supply  of 
water  has  to  be  drawn  from  a  well,  an  up- 
right post,  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  is 
fixed  near  it,  on  which  a  long  cross-beam  is 
balanced.  From  one  end  of  this  beam  hangs 
a  bucket,  while  on  the  other  extremity  is  fas- 
tened a  weight,  generally  a  large  stone,  which 
is  so  regulated  that  the  only  exertion  required 
is  to  lower  the  bucket  into  the  well.  The 
stone  at  the  end  of  the  beam  brings  the  bucket 
to  the  surface  by  its  weight,  and  the  water  is 
then  emptied  into  a  conduit  which  carries  it 
to   the    field    or   garden  where    it   is   required. 

The  crop  is  generally  fit  for  the  harvest  a  hun- 
dred  days   after   the   seed   is   put  in.     When  it 


Rice   Cultivation.  209 

is  cut,  as  it  generally  is,  close  to  the  ground, 
a  sickle  is  used,  and  the  sheaves  are  bound  up 
and  put  into  shocks,  as  corn  is  among  our- 
selves ;  but  iu  some  parts  of  tlie  country  the 
ears  only  are  reaped,  and  when  this  is  the  case, 
the  reaper  drags  after  him  a  basket  on  a  small 
wheeled-truck,  into  which  he  throws  the  ears 
as    he    severs   them   with   a   knife. 

The  act  of  threshing  is  performed  in  different 
ways,  ill  different  parts  of  the  country.  Some- 
times the  thresher  takes  a  double  handful  of 
the  stalks,  and  strikes  them  against  the  bars  of 
an  open  frame  in  such  a  way  that  the  grain  falls 
through  to  the  ground ;  sometimes,  instead  of 
an  open  frame,  a  tub  is  used,  against  the  in- 
side of  which  the  stalks  are  struck.  In  other 
places  they  are  carried  to  a  carefully  swept 
threshing-floor,  and  are  then  threshed  out  with 
flails.  Not  unfiequentl}^  also,  the  grain  is  trod- 
den out  by  buffaloes,  mules,  or  ponies,  or  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  ear  by  means  of  rollers  drawn  by 
beasts  of  draught.  Winnowing,  in  its  most  prim- 
itive form,  is  practised  by  many  of  the  smallei 
farmers.  A  windy  da}*  is  chosen  to  throw  the 
grain  and  husks  up  in  the  air  from  the  thresh- 
ing-floor,  with   the  usual .  result.     But   quite   as 

14 


210  Agriculture. 

generally,  machines,  not  unlike  those  in  use 
among  ourselves,  are  employed.  Most  of  these 
are  turned  by  hand,  but  otliers  draw  their  mo- 
tive power  either  from  water-wheels,  or  from 
oxen  or  donkeys.  The  mills  for  grinding  grain 
are  worked  by  the  same  agencies.  Tobacco, 
beans,  tea-oil,  sweet  potatoes,  turnips,  onions, 
fruits,  and  tea,  are  among  the  best-known  pro- 
ducts  of  Southern    China. 

The  tea-plant,  which  resembles  a  whortle- 
berry, is  grown  from  seed  which  is  gathered  in 
the  winter  months,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  following  spring  the  s6ed& 
are  moistened  and  dried  again,  until  they  be- 
gin to  sprout,  when  they  are  lightly  covered 
with  earth.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  grown 
four  or  five  inches  in  height  they  are  trans- 
planted to  the  plantations,  where  they  are  ar- 
ranged in  rows  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three 
feet  apart.  No  manure  is  used  in  the  culti- 
vation, but  great  care  is  taken  to  keep  the 
ground  clear  from  weeds.  The  blossom  is  white 
and  is  not  unlike  the  orange-flower,  and  bloom* 
in  November.  The  plant  itself,  which  is  an 
evergreen,  is  allowed  to  grow  to  heights  vary- 
ing  with  the  necessities  of  the  plantations.     la 


Cultivating  Tea.  213 

high  and  exposed  positions  it  is  kept  low, 
that  it  may  avoid  injury  from  storms  and 
wind,  while  in  more  sheltered  places  it  reaches 
the  height  of  six  or  eight  feet.  The  first  crop  * 
of  leaves  is  gathered  from  it  at  the  end  of 
the  third  year,  but  gare  is  taken  not  to  ex- 
haust the  plant  by  stripping  it  too  closely. 
Thrice  in  the  year  the  leaves  are  picked,  in 
the  third,  fifth,  and  eighth  months.  The  best 
leaves  are  the  young  ones,  and,  as  the  young- 
est are  first  picked,  the  earliest  gathering  is 
the  best.  Women  and  children  are  mainly  em- 
ployed in  this  work.  Having  been  first  dried 
in  the  sun,  the  leaves  are  then  trodden  out 
by  naked-footed  laborers,  in  order  to  break  the 
fibres  and  extract  the  moisture.  This  done, 
they  are  heaped  up  and  allowed  to  heat  for 
some  hours,  until  the}"^  have  become  a  reddish- 
brown  color.  They  are  next  rolled  up  by  the 
band,  and  are  afterwards  again  exposed  to  the 
sun  should  the  weather  be  propitious,  but  if 
not,  they  are  slowly  baked  over  charcoal  fires. 
With  this  process  their  preparation  for  the 
market  is  complete,  and  they  pass  from  the 
hands  of  the  growers  to  those  of  the  native 
merchants.     By  these  purchasers  they  are   car©- 


214  Agriculture, 

fully  sifted,  the  leaves  of  different  sizes  and 
ages  are  separated,  and  the  stems  and  damaged 
leaves  are  removed.  They  are  then  thoroughly 
dried  in  iron  pans  over  slow  fires,  and  are 
shipped    to   Europe   and    America.      These    pro- 


cesses differ  slightly  in  the  case  of  some  teas, 
but  they  are  all  dried,  trodden  on,  baked,  and 
rolled,  excepting  green  tea,  which  is  not  dried 
in  the  sun,  but  is  fired,  and  rubbed  with  the 
hands   instead   of  being  trodden  on.     The   prin- 


Varieties  of  Tea. 


215 


cipal   kinds   of  tea  exported  are  Congou,  which 
is    grown     iu     the     provinces    of    Hoonan    and 


IX    A    TEA-SHOP. 


Kwang-tung ;  Souchong,  the  best  of  which  is 
produced  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Fuh-keen  ;  Flowery  Pekoe  and  Oolong, 


216 


Agriculture. 


or  "  Black  dragon "  which  also  comes  from 
Fuh-keen ;  scented  Orange  Pekoe  and  scented 
capers,   from    Kwang-tung    and    Fuh-keen ;    and 


PREPAKING    TEA. 


green  tea  from  the  neighborhood  of  Woojuen 
in  Keang-se.  Tea  is  drunk  universally  through- 
out   the    empire    by    all    except   those   who   are 


Hoiv  to  Drink  Tea.  217 

too  poor  to  buy  it ;  but  this  was  not  always 
the  case.  In  some  places,  as  at  Hang-chow, 
fur  example,  wine-shops  used  to  be  as  numer- 
ous as  tea-shops  are  now.  To  the  honor  of  the 
temperance  of  the  people  it  is  to  be  said, 
that  when  tea-shops  were  first  introduced,  they 
were  received  with  such  favor,  that  the  publi- 
cans had  to  shut  up  their  establishments.  The 
price  of  teas  in  tlie  countr\-  varies  enormously, 
the  common  kinds  being  ver\^  cheap,  while  some 
of  the  choicest  sorts  fetch  among  native  epi- 
cures such  prices  as  make  the  export  of  them 
impossible.  The  orthodox  way  of  making  tea 
is  to  put  a  pincli  of  tlie  leaves  into  a  cup  and 
to  pour  boiling  water  on  them,  the  drinker 
being  protected  from  swallowing  the  leaves  b}* 
an  inverted  saucer,  which  covers  the  cup,  and 
which  is  so  held  as  to  keep  back  the  leaves 
during  the  act  of  drinking.  Among  the  poorer 
classes,  when  tea  is  made  for  a  number  of  per- 
sons, tea-pots  are  used,  and  the  landlords  of 
wayside  inns,  and  charitable  people  who  seek 
to  win  for  themselves  a  happy  future,  by  at- 
tending to  tlie  comforts  of  travellers  here  on 
earth,  provide  at  stations  along  the  high-road 
brews   of  the   compound  in    large    vessels. 


218  Agriculture, 

In  point  of  antiquity  the  use  of  tea  cannot 
compare  with  the  cultivation  of  silk.  History 
tells  us  that  Seling  she,  the  wife  of  Shin-nnng 
(B.  c.  2737-2697),  was  the  first  spinner  of  silk 
and  weaver  of  cloth,  for  which  discovery  she 
has  been  canonized,  and  is  annually  worshiped 
on  a  certain  day  in  the  ninth  month.  On  that 
occasion  the  empress  and  her  ladies  perform 
devotions  at  her  shrine ;  and  as  the  emperor 
sets  an  example  of  industry  to  the  agricultu- 
rists throughout  the  empire,  by  ploughing  a 
piece  of  land  at  the  opening  of  spring,  so  the 
empress  and  her  court  stimulate  the  busy  fin- 
gers of  Chinese  housewives,  by  going  through 
the  form  of  collecting  mulberry-leaves,  feeding 
the  palace  silk-worms,  and  winding  off  some 
cocoon    of  silks. 

The  eastern,  central  and  southern  provinces 
of  the  empire  are  the  home  of  the  silk  in- 
dustry. There  the  mulberry-trees  flourish,  and 
tiiere  the  climate  best  suits  the  insects.  Great 
care  is  taken  by  the  breeders  in  the  choice 
and  matching  of  the  cocoons,  and  unhealthy  or 
in  any  way  deformed  moths  are  destroyed  as 
soon  as  thej"^  free  themselves  from  their  shells. 
"The   number   of  eggs    which   one  moth    lays," 


Silk  Industry.  219 

says  Archdeacon  Gray,  "is  generally  five  hun- 
dred, and  the  period  required  for  her  to  per- 
form so  great  a  labor  is,  I  believe,  about 
seventy-four  hours.  The  females  often  die  al- 
most immediately  after  tliey  have  laid  their 
eggs,  and  the  males  do  not  long  survive  them. 
The  eg^  of  the  silkworm,  which  is  of  a 
v^hiteish  or  pale  ash  color,  is  not  larger  than 
a  grain  of  mustard-seed.  When  eighteen  days 
old  the  eggs  are  carefully  washed  with  spring- 
water.  The  sheet  of  coarse  paper  or  piece  of 
cloth  on  which  they  are  laid,  and  to  which 
they  adhere,  is  very  gently  drawn  through 
spring-water  contained  in  a  wooden  or  earthen- 
ware bowl.  During  the  autumnal  months  the 
eggs  are  carefully  kept  in  a  cool  chamber,  the 
sheets  of  paper  or  pieces  of  cloth  being  sus- 
pended back  to  back  from  bamboo-rods  placed 
in  a  horizontal  position.  In  the  tenth  month 
of  the  Chinese  year  ....  the  sheets  are 
rolled  up,  and  then  deposited  in  a  room,  which 
is  well  swept,  and  free  from  all  noxious  in- 
fluences. On  the  third  day  of  the  twelfth 
month  the  eggs  are  again  washed,  and  then  ex- 
posed in  the  air  to  dry.  In  the  spring  of  the 
year,  the   eggs   being   now  ready  to   be  brought 


220  Agricvlture. 

forth,  the  sheets  are  placed  on  mats,  and  each 
mat  placed  on  a  bamboo  shelf,  in  a  well- 
swept  and  well-warmed  chamber,  containing  a 
series  of  shelves  arranged  along  the  walls. 
The  shelves  are  almost  invariably  made  of  bam- 
boo, the  wood  of  which  emits  no  fragrance, 
aromatic  wood  being  especially  avoided  as  un- 
suitable  for  the  purpose." 

As  soon  as  the  worms  are  hatched  the}'  are 
carefully  tended  and  fed.  Twice  every  hour 
during  the  first  few  days  of  their  existence, 
they  are  given  chopped  mulberry-leaves.  Grad- 
ually this  number  of  meals  is  reduced  to  three 
or  four  in  the  day,  when  occasionally  green- 
pea,  black-bean,  or  rice-flour,  is  mixed  with 
their  staple  food.  On  the  fourth  or  fifth  day 
of  their  lives  they  fall  into  a  sleep  known 
among  the  Chinese  as  the  "hair  sleep,"  which 
lasts  for  twenty-four  hours.  Twice  again,  after 
similar  periods,  they  enjoy  long  slumbers,  and 
on  the  twenty-second  day  a  deep  sleep  of  still 
longer  duration  overtakes  them.  During  these 
periods  of  rest  the  worms  cast  their  skins,  and 
finally  reach  their  full  size  at  the  end  of  a 
month,  when  they  appear  of  a  deep  yellow 
color,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  man's  little 


Silk  Worms  and  Cleanliness.  221 

finger.  After  arriving  at  maturity  the  worms 
cease  to  eat,  and  begin  to  spin.  As  *  the  silk 
issues  from  their  mouths  they  move  their  heads 
from  side  to  side,  and  thus  envelope  themselves 
in  cocoons.  When  completely  enclosed,  they 
fall  into  a  state  of  coma,  and  become  chr3sales. 
The  shelves  on  which  they  are,  are  then  placed 
near  a  fire  to  kill  the  clirysalids,  which,  when 
accomplished,  the  silk  is  unwound  and  the 
chrysalids    are   eaten. 

As  many  superstitions  sui-round  the  cultiva- 
tion of  silkworms  as  encumber  every  other 
occupation  in  China,  and,  as  might  be  supposed, 
most  of  them  are  founded  on  natural  causes. 
Such  are  the  beliefs  based  on  the  silkworm's 
love  of  cleanliness,  that  persons  before  enter- 
ing the  room  where  they  are  kept,  should  be 
sprinkled  with  water  in  which  mulberry-leaves 
have  been  soaked  ;  that  no  fish  should  on 
any  account  be  brought  into  the  chamber; 
that  no  woman  who  is  pregnant,  or  who  has 
lately  become  a  mother,  should  have  anything 
to  do  with  them  ;  and  that  no  one  smelling 
of  wine,  ginger,  garlic,  or  anything  aromatic, 
should  approach  them.  Speaking  generalh*,  the 
male    principle   is   believed    to   be    congenial   to 


222  Agriculture. 

them,  and  the  female  principle  to  be  the  re- 
verse. If  this  be  really  so,  they  are  most 
iinforLunute  insects,  since  they  are  attended 
to  almost  exclusively  by  women  and  girls. 
They  are  also  said  to  be  peculiarly  suscepti- 
ble to  thunder,  and  to  all  sudden  and  violent 
noises. 

The  looms  for  weaving  the  silk  are  simple 
in  construction,  and  are  similar  to  the  hand- 
looms  used  in  Europe.  The  principal  seats  of 
the  silk  manufacture  are  Soo-chovv,  Hang-chow^,- 
Nanking,  and  Canton.  The  three  places  first 
named  are  noted  for  the  beauty  of  their  silk 
stuffs,  and  they  are  those  from  which  the  im- 
perial .  palace  receives  its  annual  stores.  The 
Peking  Gazette  acknowledged  the  receipt  from 
Soo-chow,  in  1877,  of  a  thousand  rolls  of  satin 
for  the  Board  of  Revenue,  and  for  the  palace 
three  hundred  and  seventy  rolls  of  satin,  three 
thousand  four  hundred  rolls  of  silk  gauze,  six 
hundred  large  handkerchiefs,  eight  hundred  cat- 
ties *  of  sewing  silk,  five  hundred  catties  of 
white  silk,  and  three  thousand  pieces  of  fine 
calico ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  superin- 
tendent  of    the    imperial    manufactory   at    Nan- 

*  A  catty  is  equal  to  about  a  pound  and  a  quarter. 


THE    TEA    PLANT. 


223 


The   Wild  Silkworm.  225 

king  reported  the  completion  of  an  order  for 
five  hundred  rolls  of  yellow  brocaded  satin. 
Canton  is  famous  for  its  gauzes,  and  Pak-kow, 
in  the  province  of  Kwang-tung,  for  its  crape 
shawls. 

Besides  the  cultivated  silkworms,  there  is,  in 
less  favored  parts  of  the  empire,  a  kind  known 
as  "the  wild  silkworm,"  which  feeds  as  sur- 
rounding circumstances  determine,  on  either  the 
leaves  of  the  pepper-tree,  or  the  ash,  or  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  oak.  This  species  is  far  less 
manageable  than  its  mulberry-fed  relative,  and 
is  infinitely  more  hardy.  Much  less  trouble  is 
bestowed  on  the  worms  by  the  breeders,  but 
though  the  return  of  silk  they  yield  is  con- 
siderable, it  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the 
other  kind,  either  in  beauty  or  fineness.  In 
the  province  of  Shan-tung  a  great  quantity  of 
Nankeen  silk  is  made  from  the  cocoons  spun 
by  the  "  wild  silkworms  "  of  that  province,  and 
in  Sze-chuen  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  in 
silk  similarly  manufactured.  Though  inferior  in 
quality  to  that  grown  in  Eastern  China,  j^et 
in  strength  and  durability  S^e-chuen  silk  is  far 
superior  to  it,  and  is  able  to  compete  success- 
fully with  it  in  the  market.  Being  purely  a 
15 


226  Agricultur'e. 

Chinese  product,  silk  was  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope by  its  native  name  (Sze),  which  it  still 
retains  under  a  guise  sufficiently  flimsy  to  leave 
it  quite  recognizable.  The  same  is  the  case 
with   satin    (Sze-tun),   and    tea    (Te). 

Another  product  peculiar  to  China  is  white 
insect  wax.  This  curious  substance  is  produced 
exclusivel}'  in  the  prefecture  of  Kea-ting  Foo, 
in  Sze-chuen,  the  climate  of  which  district 
appears  to  favor  the  propagation  of  the  disease, 
which  is  believed  by  tiie  natives  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  secretion  of  the  wax.  This  be- 
lief is  supported  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  the  insects  breed,  only  a  small 
quantity  of  wax  is  made,  and  experience  has 
therefore  taught  the  natives  the  advantage  of 
breeding  the  insects  in  one  district  and  remov- 
ing them  to  another  to  produce  the  wax.  The 
neighborhood  of  Keen-chang,  in  the  south  of 
the  province,  has  been  found  most  suitable  for 
breeding-purposes,  and  it  is  there,  therefore, 
that  the  breeding-processes  are  carried  on,  on 
a  particular  kind  of  evergreen  tree,  with  large 
ovate  leaves.  At  the  end  of  April,  the  breed- 
ers start,  each  with  a  load  of  the  insects'  eggs, 
for    the    district    of    Kea-ting     Foo,    a     journey 


No  Head,  no  Eyes,  no  Feet.  227 

which,  when  made  on  foot,  occupies  about  a 
fortnight.  The  road  between  the  two  districts 
is  very  mountainous,  and  as  exposure  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun  would  hatch  the  eggs  too 
rapidly,  the  men  travel  only  by  night.  At 
Kea-ting  Foo  the  eggs  are  eagerly  bought  up, 
and  are  at  once  put  upon  the  wax-tree. 
"  When  the  eg^  balls  are  procured,"  writes 
Baron  Richthofen,  "  they  are  folded  up,  six  or 
seven  together,  in  a  bag  of  palm-leaves.  These 
bags  are  suspended  on  the  twigs  of  the  trees. 
This  is  all  the  human  labor  required.  After  a 
few  days  the  insects  commence  coming  out. 
They  spread  as  a  brownish  film  over  the  twigs, 
but  do  not  touch  the  leaves.  The  Chinese 
describe  them  as  having  neither  shape,  nor 
head,  nor  eyes,  nor  feet.  It  is  known  that 
the  insect  is  a  species  of  coccus.  Gradually, 
while  the  insect  is  grovviug,  the  surface  of  the 
twigs  becomes  encrustated  with  a  white  wax. 
No  care  wliatever  is  required.  The  insect  has 
no  enem}*,  and  is  not  even  touched  by  ants. 
In  the  latter  half  of  August  the  twigs  are  cut 
off  and  boiled  in  water,  when  the  wax  rises 
to  the  surface.  It  is  then  melted  and  poured 
into   deep    pans.      It   cools  down   to   a  translu- 


228 


Agriculture. 


cent  and  highly-crystalline  substance.  Two 
taels*  weight  of  eggs  produce  from  two  to 
three   catties  of   wax." 

*  A  tae]  is  equal  to  about  an  ounce.    Sixteen  make  a  poutkL 


CHAPTER  VII. 


MEDICINE. 


HE  medical  art  in 
China  has  a  long 
ancestry,  and  dates 
back  to  the  time 
when  Hwang-te  is 
said  to  have  invent- 
ed mnsic,  and  many 
other  arts  which  ad- 
ded to  the  elegan- 
cies and  comforts  of 
life.  The  prevalence  of  disease  and  death 
among  his  subjects  so  affected  him  that,  as 
it  is  said,  he  wrested  from  nature  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  operations  of  her  opposing  prin- 
ciples, and  of  the  virtues  of  herbs  and  other 
medical  remedies.  The  results  of  these  studies 
he  embodied  in  a  work  entitled  the  Nuy  king^ 
or  the   "Classic   of  the   Interior,"   by   means  of 

229 


230  Medicine. 

the  knowledge  contained  in  whicli,  disease  lost' 
half  its  terrors,  and  the  length  of  human  life 
was   extended. 

Chinese  authors  assume,  with  that  complete 
self-complacency  which  is  common  to  them, 
that  the  wide  medical  knowledge  whicli  was 
imparted  to  the  world  by  Hwang-te,  has  since 
been  so  vastly  increased  that  at  the  present 
time  the  science  of  medicine  in  China  has 
reached  its  highest  development.  An  acquaint- 
ance, however,  with  their  medical  practice  and 
pharmacopoeia  completely  dispels  this  delusion, 
and  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  fact  that 
their  knowledge  of  medicine  is  entirely  empiri- 
cal, and  is  based  neither  on  accurate  observa- 
tion nor  scientific  research.  Of  physiology,  or 
of  human  and  comparative  anatomy,  they  know 
nothing.  The  functions  of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver, 
kidneys  and  brain  are  sealed  books  to  them,  and 
they  recognize  no  distinction  between  veins 
and  arteries,  and  between  nerves  and  tendons. 
Their  deeply-rooted  repugnance  to  the  use  of 
the  knife  in  surgery,  or  to  post-mortem  exam- 
inations, prevent  the  possibility  of  their  acquir- 
ing any  accurate  knowledge  of  the  human 
frame,  and   their   notion  of  the    position   of   the 


Ignorant  Empiricism.  231 

various  organs  is  almost  as  wild  as  their  idea 
of  their  different  functions ;  which  is  saying  a 
good  deal,  wlien  one  recollects  that  they  con- 
sider that  from  the  heart  and  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach all  ideas  and  delights  proceed,  and  that 
the  gall-bladder  is  the  seat  of  courage.  So 
firmly  is  this  last  belief  lield,  and  so  strange 
is  the  perversion  of  their  ideas  on  the  subject 
of  processes  through  which  all  food  has  to  go, 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  for  men  desirous  of 
gaining  additional  courage  to  devour  the  gall 
of  savage  beasts,  and  even  of  notorious  mur- 
derers and  rebels  who  have  expiated  their 
crimes   at   the   hand    of  the   executioner. 

No  Harvey  has  arisen  in  China  to  enligbten 
his  countrymen  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  beyond  having  a  general  notion  that  it 
ebbs  and  flows,  they  know  nothing  of  its 
movements.  They  even  consider  that  there  is 
a  difference  in  the  pulses  on  the  two  wrists, 
and  not  only  this,  but  that  there  are  differ- 
ences to  be  observed  in  each  pulse.  And  this 
they  profess'  to  account  for  by  saying  that  the 
different  parts  of  the  pulse  reflect  the  condi- 
tion of  the  organs  which  they  represent.  For 
example,   the    parts    of    the    pulse    on   the    left 


232  Medicine. 

wrist  are  believed  to  discover  the  state  of  the 
heart,  small  intestines,  liver,  gall-bladder,  kid- 
neys, and  bladder;  while  those  on  the  right 
wrist  reflect  the  condition  of  the  lungs,  larger 
intestines,  spleen,  stomach,  gate  of  life,  and 
membranes  of  the  viscera.  There  are,  also,  they 
consider,  seven  distinct  indications,  given  by 
the  pulse,  on  the  approach  of  death,  and  each 
of  the  seven  passions  is  represented  by  pulsa- 
tions  which   may    be    distinguished. 

Man's  body  is  believed  to  be  composed  of 
the  five  elements  —  fire,  water,  metal,  wood,  and 
earth  —  all  of  which  are  mysteriously  connected 
with  the ,  five  planets,  five  tastes,  five  colors, 
five  metals,  and  five  viscera.  To  keep  these 
five  antagonistic  •  principles  in  harmony  is  the 
duty  of  the  phj^sician,  and  to  restore  the 
equilibrium  when  any  one  of  them  is  in  ex- 
cess or  deficiency,  is  the  main  object  of  his 
endeavors. 

The  medical  profession  in  China  is  in  every 
sense  an  open  one.  There  are  no  medical  col- 
leges, and  no  examination-tests  exist  to  worry 
the  minds  of  the  would-be  practitioners.  Neither 
are  diplomas  asked  for  or  granted.  Any  quack 
or    the   most,  ignorant   bumpkin    may    become   a 


Quack  Doctors-  283 

practising  physician,  and  by  his  success  or  non- 
success   in   the   profession,   he   stands   or  falls. 

Speaking  generally,  doctors  in  China  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes:  —  namely,  those  who 
have  inherited  prescriptions  of  merit;  men,  who 
having  failed  at  the  examinations,  have  taken 
to  the  study  of  medicine ;  and  the  merest 
quacks.  This  classification  is  intelligible  when 
it  is  remembered  that  the  practice  of  medicine 
is  not  based  on  any  well-ascertained  knowledge, 
but  is  simply  empirical,  and  consists  mainly  in 
the  use  of  herbs  and  vegetable  medicines. 
Many  an  old  woman  in  the  country  districts 
of  America  or  England  has  as  useful  a  phar- 
macopoeia as  the  most  prosperous  Chinese  doc- 
tors, who,  however,  supplement  the  more  effi- 
cacious remedies  they  possess  by  others  which 
'have  no  remedial  qualities  at  all.  For  example, 
among  many  herbal 'medicines,  which  undoubt- 
edly are  more  or  less  tonic,  we  find  that  the 
same  qualities  are  ascribed  to  stalactite,  fresh 
tops  of  stag-horns,  dried  red-spotted  lizards,  silk- 
worm moths,  black  and  white  lead,  tortoise- 
shell,  and  dog's  flesh.  By  the  same  stretch  of 
the  imagination  the  bones  and  teeth  of  dragons, 
oyst«r-shells,   loadstone,    talc,   and   gold   and   sil- 


234  Medicine. 

ver  leaf  are  regarded  as  astringents  ;  while  ver- 
digris, calcareous  spar,  catechu  pearls,  bear's 
gall,  shavings  of  rhinoceros'  horns,  and  turtle- 
shell,  are  used  as  purgatives.  Elephant's  skin, 
and,  with  a  certain  consistency,  ivory -shavings 
are  considered  to  be  antidotes  to  poison.  It 
has  been  calculated  by  Doctor  Henderson,  that 
out  of  the  whole  Chinese  pharmacopoeia,  three 
hundred  and  fourteen  remedies  are  taken  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  about  fifty  from  the 
mineral  kingdom,  and  seventy-eight  from  the 
animal    kingdom. 

All  these  remedies,  good,  bad,  and  indiffer- 
ent, are  sanctioned  hj  the  medical  board  at 
Peking,  which  has,  in  the  exercise  of  its  wis- 
dom, divided  all  diseases  into  eleven  classes ; 
viz.,  —  diseases  of  the  large  blood-vessels,  and 
small-pox ;  diseases  of  the  small  blood-vessels ; 
diseases  of  the  skin ;  diseases  of  the  eye ;  of 
the  mouth ;  of  the  teeth ;  of  the  throat ;  of 
women ;  of  the  bones  ;  and  fevers  and  cases 
arising  from  acupuncture  Fortunately  for  the 
people  whose  health  is  at  the  mere}'  of  these 
ignorant  professors  of  the  art  of  healing,  in- 
flammatory diseases,  to  which  are  attributable 
three-fifths    of    the    mortality    in     England,    are 


Doctors'  Pees.  236 

almost  unknown  in  China,  where,  however, 
small-pox,  phthisis,  dysentery,  and  diarrhoea,  rage 
almost  unchecked  by  medical  help,  and  skin 
diseases  lay  a  heavy  burden  on  the  population. 
Of  late,  the  practice  of  vaccination  has  begun 
to  make  way  among  the  people,  having  been 
first  introduced  to  their  notice  by  a  pamphlet 
on  the  subject  which  was  translated  into  Chi- 
nese b}'  Sir  George  Staunton.  Previouslv  inoc- 
ulation by  putting  the  virus  up  the  nose  was 
universally  employed,  as  it  still  is,  by  all  ex- 
cept those  few  who  have  been  shown  the  bet- 
ter way.  Cancer  is  b}'  no  means  uncommon, 
and  for  this  disease  human  milk  is  largely  used. 
At  the  present  time  the  empress  dowager  is 
said  to  be  suffering  from  this  frightful  malady, 
and  it  is  stated  that  in  her  case,  the  remedy 
referred  to  has  been  employed  with  the  most 
beneficial  results. 

The  scale  of  doctors'  fees  is  low,  being  from 
about  a  dime  in  the  case  of  poor  people,  to  a 
dollar  in  the  case  of  wealthy  persons ;  but  it 
will  probably  be  considered  that  even  this 
lower  sum  is  more  than  an  equivalent  for  the 
good  likely  to  be  gained  from  their  advice. 
As    a    rule,    when   a    lady    is    the   sufferer,   the 


286  Medicine. 

doctor  never  sees  his  patient  except  in  extreme 
cases,  and  is  content  to  form  his  opinion  ui' 
her  ailment  by  feeling  the  pulse  of  her  wrists, 
which  are  allowed  to  appear  beneath  the  screen 
behind  which  she  sits  or  reclines.  One  of  the 
most  curious  and  dangerous  extra  medicinal 
remedies  used  by  the  Chinese  is  acupuncture. 
This  is  generally  resorted  to  in  cases  of  chronic 
rheumatism  or  dyspepsia.  For  the  first  malady 
the  needle,  either  hot  or  cold,  is  thrust  boldly 
into  the  joint  or  joints  affected,  and  though 
valueless  as  a  curative,  it  is  at  least  less  dan- 
gerous than  when  applied  for  dyspepsia.  In 
such  cases  it  is  thrust  into  the  abdomen,  re- 
gardless of  the  injury  which  is  likely  to  be 
done  to  the  intestines  and  organs.  Among 
people  of  Western  nations  and  constitutions, 
this  reckless  use  of  the  needle  would  constantly 
produce  serious  if  not  fatal  evils,  but  thanks 
to  the  phlegmatic  temperament  of  Chinamen, 
it  does  not  often  bring  about  mortal  results. 
Occasionally  patients  are  admitted  to  the  for- 
eign hospitals,  suffering  from  injuries  to  intes- 
tines and  liver  inflicted  by  the  needle,  but 
these  do  not,  as  a  rule,  enter  any  more  seri- 
ous category  than   that   of   troublesome  cases. 


No  Chinese  Chemistrif.  287 

Insanity  is  by  no  means  uncomaion  in  China,  , 
but  it  is  less  conspicuous  than  in  Western  lands, 
owing  to  the  repressive  treatment  whicli  the 
patients  receive.  On  the  first  symptom  of  vio- 
lence, they  are  bound  down  and  kept  so  until 
their  strength  fails  them  or  death  releases  them 
from  their  bondage.  When  harmless,  they  are 
allowed  to  wandei  about,  and  in  the  northern 
provinces,  where  insanity  seems  to  prevail  more 
than  in  the  south,  the  wretched  creatures, 
clothed  or  unclothed,  may  be  met  with  on  the 
roads  and  in  the  streets.  On  one  occasion,  the 
present  writer  saw  a  maniac  lying  by  the  way- 
side, in  the  midst  of  winter,  without  a  particle 
of  clothing  upon  him.  Lunatic  asylums  are  un- 
known, and  the  malady  is  so  little  recognized 
by  the  mandarins  that  madmen  are  held  respon- 
sible to  the  law  for  their  acts  prompted  by  mania. 

The  ignorance  prevailing  among  Chinamen  of 
chemistry  and  anatomv  make  their  post-mortem 
examinations  valueless,  as  may  be  gathered  from 
the  following  finding,  lately  reported  in  the 
Peking  Gazette,  in  the  instance  of  a  suspected 
case  of  poisoning.  "  We  find,"  wrote  the  cor- 
oners, "in  the  remains  of  Koh  P'in-leen  that 
there  is   no   reddish  exfoliation   on   the   surface 


238  Medicine. 

of  the  skull;  that  the  upper  and  lower  bones 
of  the  mouth,  the  teeth,  jaw-bones,  hands,  feet, 
fingers,  toes,  nails,  and  joints  are  all  of  a  yellow- 
ish-white color;  .  .  .  through  the  remainder 
of  the  body  the  bones  of  all  sizes  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish-white, showing  no  signs  of  the  effects 
of  poison ;  and  our  verdict  is  that  death  in 
this  case  was  caused  by  disease,  and  not  by 
poison."  The  one  point,  in  which,  at  an  early 
period,  the  Chinese  were  in  advance  of  our- 
selves, was  in  their  knowledge  of  the  value  of 
mercury. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


MUSIC. 


^V/TUSIC,  like  some  of 
the  other  sciences, 
is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  the  Em- 
peror Fuh-he  (B.  c. 
2852-2737).  He  it 
was,  we  are  told, 
who  made  the  first 
She^  a  sort  of  lute. 
At  first  this  instru- 
ment had  twenty- 
five  strings,  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  a  damsel  was  one  day 
playing  on  one  such  instrument  before  the  Em- 
peror Hwang-te,  who  became  so  effected  to  mel- 
ancholy by  the  music,  that  he  ordered  that, 
from  that  time,  the  number  of  the  strings  should 
be  reduced    by  one   half.      To    Fuh-he   belongs 


240  Muiic. 

also  the  credit  of  beiug  the  inventor  of  the 
KHn^  another  form  of  lute,  which  stands  in  pop- 
ular estimation  at  the  head  of  Chinese  musi- 
cal instruments.  The  name  which  was  originally 
given  it  of  Lung  KHn  points  to  the  fact,  which 
we  have  abundant  evidence  to  prove,  that  the 
aborigines  of  China  were  musicians  before  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Chinese.  The  Lung  were  a  powerful 
tribe  occupying  a  portion  of  Southwestern  China, 
and  judging  from  the  name,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  knowledge  of  the  K'in  was 
first  brought  to  the  Court  of  Fuh-he  by  men 
of  that  race.  Tlie  K'in  was  known  also  among 
the  ancients  as  "a  reminder  of  distant  affairs," 
which  would  seem  to  indicate  a  geographically 
remote  origin  for  it.  History  further  tells  us 
that,  during  his  reign,  men  of  the  great  Pung 
(Fung)  tribe,  which  at  that  time  occupied  a 
large  tract  of  country  south  of  the  Yang-tsze 
keang,   arrived   at  court  and   made   music. 

In  considering  these  early  chapters  of  ancient 
Chinese  history,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  we  are  dealing  with  the  mixed  records  of 
the  aborigines  and  of  the  Chinese.  So  far  in 
the  history  of  music  we  are  plainly  in  the  pre- 
Chiuese   stage,  but  with   the   reign  of   Hwang  te 


The  First   Chinese  Music.  241 

the  Chinese  element  is  introduced.  The  account 
of  Hwang-te's  musical  efforts  are  very  interest- 
ing, and  bear  out  in  a  remarkable  degree  the 
supposition  that  he  was  one  of  the  rulers  of 
the  race  when  they  had  their  homes  to  the 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  We  are  told  that 
he  sent  his  minister  Ling-lun  from  the  west 
of  Ta  hea  to  a  particular  valley  in  the  KwSn- 
lun  mountains,  where  he  was  ordered  to  make 
choice  of  bamboos  fitted  for  musical  pipes.  Ta 
hea  we  know  to  have  been  Bactria,  and  Hwang-te 
must  therefore  have  been  living  to  the  west  of 
that  country,  exactly  where  we  should  expect 
to  find  him.  Ling-lun  did  as  he  was  told,  and 
cut  twelve  pipes  of  varying  lengths,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  emit  the  twelve  demi-tones.  These, 
it  is  said,  he  arrived  at  by  listening  to  the 
singing  of  the  Pungs,  the  voices  of  the  men 
giving  him,  so  runs  the  story,  six  demi-tones, 
and  those  of  the  women  the  remaining  six. 
Here  again  it  will  be  observed  the  help  of  the 
Pungs  is  called  in,  and  it  is  worth  mentioning 
that  the  descendants  of  these  people  and  of 
the  Lung  and  Kwei  tribes  who  are  still  to  be 
founf^  in  the  southwestern  povinces  of  the  em- 
pire, retain  the  same  passion  for  music  and 
16 


242  Music. 

dancing   which    made    them    famous   in  the    time 
of   Full-he,  and    subsequently. 

Chwan  Hii,  the  next  Emperor  but  one  to 
Hwang-te,  was  born,  we  are  told,  at  the  J8 
water  in  Sze-chuen,  and  on  reaching  the  throne, 
used  to  recall  with  pleasure,  the  sound  made 
by  the  wind  as  it  whistled  through  the  forests 
of  mulberry  trees  which  grew  in  his  native 
district.  That  he  might  again  listen  to  such 
music,  he  sent  a  Fei-lung  to  the  J5  water  to 
imitate  the  sounds  of  the  eight  winds-  The 
Fei-lung  (Fl3dng  Dragon)  tribe  was  one  of  the 
most  important  in  primitive  China.  We  read 
of  them  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Yih  king., 
and  repeatedly  in  the  earlier  historical  works. 
They  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Lung  people, 
who  were  divided  into  the  Fei-lung,  the  Hwo- 
lung  (Fire  Dragons),  the  Ho-lung  (River  Dra- 
gons), etc.  The  existence  of  these  prefixes  has 
served  to  conceal  the  fact  that  the  compound 
expressions  represented  tribal  names,  and  has 
encouraged  those  who  looked  on  all  mentions 
of  the  Lung  as  so  many  myths  in  their  in- 
credulity. But  in  point  of  fact,  they  serve  as 
confirmations  of  the  opposite  sense.  In  his 
recent   work   of  travels    in    Cambodia,  Monsieur 


Drums  and  Stringed  Instruments,      243 

JJe-la-porte  says  that  he  encountered  in  his. 
journeys  several  sections  of  the  Kwei  tribe» 
which  were  distinguished  as  Fei-kwei  (Flying 
kwei),  Hwo-kwei,  (Fire  kwei),  Ho-kwei  (River 
kwei),  and  so  on.  The  Fei-lung  who  was 
sent  by  Chwan  Hii  on  the  diflBcult  mission  of 
reproducing  the  sounds  of  the  wind,  is  said  to 
have  been  successful.  By  means  of  what  in- 
strument he  preserved  the  notes  we  are  not 
told,  but  as  the  invention  of  the  Pan  pipes 
is  put  down  to  this  period,  it  is  possible  that 
they  may  have  been  tlie  instrument  chosen  by 
the   Fei-lung. 

Stringed  and  reed  instruments,  such  as  are 
used  by  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  China  at  the 
present  day,  were  the  first  known.  Next  in 
order,  probably,  came  drums,  which  seem,  in 
the  first  instance,  to  have  been  used  to  excite 
warriors  in  the  battle-field  to  deeds  of  prowess. 
Of  these  there  are  eight  kinds,  distinguished 
by  names  indicating  their  size  and  use.  Stone 
•seems  also  to  liave  preceded  metal  aTs  a  musi- 
cal substance.  In  the  earliest  classics  we  have 
mention  of  musical  stones,  'which  were  sixteen 
in  number,  and  were  hung  from  a  frame  by 
cords.    They   were  cut   somewhat   in  the   shape 


244 


Music. 


of  a  carpenter's  square,  one  side  being  twice 
the  length  of  the  other.  The  stones  played 
upon  by  the  emperors  are  said  to  have  been 
of  jade,  the  use  of  which,  for  this  purpose, 
was  forbidden   to   subjects. 

In  most  parts   of  the  world   the  trumpet  has 


TT    1     ) 

MUSICAL  WOMEN. 


held  the  first  place  among  metal  instruments, 
but  in  China  the  bell  had  the  priority,  and 
at  the  present  day  it  still  holds  its  own  against 


Trumpets  and  Bells.  245 

the  louder-tongiied,  horn,  which  is  used  only  as 
a  militarj'  call,  and  in  processions.  Bells  were 
originally  niade  of  six  parts  of  copper  to  one 
of  tin.  Tongues  were  never  used,  but  sound 
was  produced  by  striking  the  rim  with  a  stick, 
or,  in  after-times,  the  knobs  with  which  the 
bell  was  studded,  and  which  were  so  arranged 
as  to  give  out  the  diflferent  musical  notes  when 
struck.  The  form  of  the  most  ancient  bells 
was  square,  but  in  subsequent  ages  they  as- 
sumed the  roujid  shape,  and  at  the  present 
day  are  universally  so  made.  They  are  moulded 
in  every  size,  from  the  little  Fung  ling,  or 
"Wind-bell,"  which  swings  on  the  eaves  of 
pagodas,  to  the  huge  bells  which  hang  in  some 
of  the  most  notable  temples.  One  of  the  largest 
of  these  is  in  a  temple  at  Peking,  and  forms 
a  wonderful  example  of  the  mechanical  inge- 
nuity of  the  Chinese.  It  is  about  fifteen  feet 
in  diameter,  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  weighs 
about  fifty-three  tons.  The  lower  rim  is  about 
a  foot  thick,  and  the  whole  bell  is  covered 
inside  and  out  with  the  Chinese  text  of  a  long 
Buddhist  liturgical  work.  This  bell  is  one  of 
a  set  of  five  which  were  cast  by  order  of  the 
Emperor   Yung-loh    (a.  d.    1403-1425).     One  of 


246  Music. 

its  companions  hangs  in  the  Drum-Tower  at 
Peking,  and,  "in  the  stillness  of  the  midnight 
hour,  its  deep  mellow  tone  is  heard  at  four 
miles  distance  throughout  Peking,  as  it  strikes 
the  watch."  In  the  "Great  Bell  Tower"  at 
Canton  there  is  a  huge  bell,  which,  however, 
is  never  voluntaril}^  struck,  as  it  is  believed, 
that  if  it  be  sounded,  some  misfortune  will 
overtake  the  city.  The  capture  of  the  town  by 
the  English  and  French,  in  1857,  is  said,  by 
the  natives,  to  have  been  the  result  of  a  shot 
from  one  of  the  guns  of  the  British  ship 
Encounter  which  struck  and  sounded  the  bell 
during  the    bombardment. 

As  musical  instruments  bells  are  principally 
used  at  religious  services  and  in  processions. 
In  ancient  times  they  seem  to  have  been  gen- 
erally sounded  with  drums.  In  the  »She  kmg 
we  have  constant  mention  of  bells  and  drums 
being  used  on  the  occasions  of  bringing  home 
brides,  or  in  royal  processions.  Sometimes  we 
hear  of  them  concerted  with  other  instruments, 
as  when  speaking  of  the  expedition  of  King 
Yew   to    the    Hwai   the   poet    says: 

Kin  kin   peal   the   bells,   peal  on, 
And  the   lutes  in   the  concert  we  hear. 


Grongs  and  CymbaU.  -     247 

Deep  breathes  the  oi^an  tone; 

Sounding  stones  join  their  notes,   rich  and  clear. 
The   wliile  through   the   vessel   there   ring 
The   Ya  and   the  Nan  which    tltey  sing, 

And  the  dancers  with  flutes  now  appear. 

Bells  were  sounded  also  at  the  opening  and 
close  of  sacrificial  rites,  and  were  even  at- 
tached to  the  knives  used.  It  is  custo- 
jnar}^  also  to  fasten  them  to  the  liarness  of 
horses  driven  by  potentates,  and  to  their  car- 
riages  and    banners. 

A  more  popular  instrument  than  the  bell  is  the 
gong,  of  which  there  are  three  kinds  in  common 
use,  the  Temple  Gong,  which,  as  its  name  implies, 
is  used  in  temples;  the  Soochow  Gong,  which  is 
shaped  "  like  a  boiler ; "  and  the  Watch  Gong, 
wliicli  is  a  small  kind  used  to  strike  the  watches. 
At  religious  services,  on  occasions  of  ceremony, 
and  at  theatrical  performances,  the  gong  bears 
a  conspicuous  part ;  but  though  considered 
an  element  of  harmony  by  men,  its  sound  strikes 
terror  into  evil  spirits,  and  it  is  consequent- 
ly used  with  pealing  effect  on  all  occasions 
when  evil  influences  are  to  be  exorcised. 
When  a  vessel  puts  to  sea,  when  it  returns 
to    harbor,    when    a    house    is    supposed    to    be 


248  Music. 

haunted,  or  when  any  unnatural  phenomena 
occur,  such  as  an  eclipse,  the  gongs  are  vig- 
orously sounded  to  dispel  the  malign  influ- 
ences which  are  believed  to  be  present.  On 
the  outbreak  of  a  fire  they  are  used  as  sig- 
nals, first  of  all  to  indicate  what  quarter  of 
the  town  is  threatened ;  next,  by  the  rapidity 
of  the  beats,  to  make  known  the  piogress  and 
fierceness  of  the  fire,  and  again,  b}-  tolling,  to 
show  that  the  danger  is  over.  Cymbals  and 
horns  are  other  metal  instruments  used  by  the 
Chinese. 

Flutes,  fifes,  clarionets,  and  conch  shells,  are, 
with  the  reed  organ,  the  commonest  wind- 
instruments.  This  last  is  made  with  a  gourd, 
into  the  upper  surface  of  which  nineteen  reed 
tubes  are  inserted.  These  reeds  have  holes 
near  the  base  to  prevent  their  emitting  sounds, 
until  stopped  by  the  performer.  The  mouth- 
piece, which  is  not  unlike  the  spout  of  a  ket- 
tle, is  inserted  in  the  side  of  the  gourd,  and 
the  instrument  is  played  either  by  drawing  in 
the   breath   or   by   blowing. 

The  favorite  instruments  of  the  Chinese, 
however,  are  stringed.  The  She  and  the  KHn, 
of    which     mention     has     already    been     made, 


Fiddles  and   Q-uitarB.  249 

are  the  chief  among  these.  "The  K'in,"  says 
Professor  Williams,  "is  verj'  ancient,  and  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  word  K'in,  to  pro- 
hibit, *  because  it  restrains  and  checks  evil  pas- 
sions, and  corrects  the  human  heart.'  It  is  a 
board  about  four  feet  in  length  and  eighteen 
inches  wide,  convex  above  and  flat  beneath, 
where  are  two  holes  opening  into  hollows. 
There  are  seven  strings  of  silk,  which  pass  over 
a  bridge  near  the  wide  end,  through  the  board, 
and  are  tightened  by  nuts  beneath :  they  are 
secured  on  two  pegs  at  the  smaller  end.  The 
sounding  board  is  divided  by  thirteen  studs, 
so  placed  that  the  length  of  the  strings  is 
divided,  first  Into  two  equal  parts,  then  into 
three,  etc.,  up  to  eight,  with  the  omission  of 
the  seventh.  The  seven  strings  enclose  the 
compass  of  the  nin'th  or  two  fifths,  the  middle 
one  being  treated  like  A  upon  the  violin  — 
viz.,  as  a  middle  string,  and  each  of  the  outer 
ones  is  tuned  a  fifth  from  it.  This  interval  is 
treated  like  our  octave  in  the  violin,  for  the 
compass  of  the  KHn  is  made  up  of  fifths. 
Each  of  the  outer  strings  is  tuned  a  fourth 
from  the  alternate  string  within  the  system,  so 
that    there   is   a    major   tone,    an    interval    tone 


250  Music. 

less  than  a  minor  third,  and  a  major  tone  in 
the  fifth.  The  Chinese  leave  tlie  interval  en- 
tire, and  skip  the  half  tone,  while  we  divide 
it  into  two  unequal  parts.  It  Avill,  therefore, 
readily  appear,  that  the  mood  or  character  of 
the  music  of  the  KHn  must  be  very  different 
from  that  of  western  instruments,  so  that  none 
of  them  can  exactl}''  do  justice  to  the  Chinese 
airs.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  performing  on 
the  lute,  is  sliding  the  left-hand  fingers  along 
the  string,  and  the  trilling  and  other  evolutions 
they   are   made   to   execute." 

Besides  the  She  and  the  JT'm  there  are 
several  kinds  of  fiddles  and  guitars,  among  the 
best-known  of  which  are  the  JP^i-P'a,  a  four- 
stringed  guitar  which  is  played  with  the  fin- 
gers, the  Yueh  KHn,  or  "  Moon  ICin,"  named 
from  the  moon-like  shape  of  the  sound-board, 
which  has  four  strings  standing  in  pairs,  tuned 
as  fifths  to  each  other,  and  the  Su-chun.  or 
"Standard  Lute,"  with  twelve  strings,  yielding 
exactly  the  notes  of  the  twelve  Luh  or  tubes 
invented   by    Ling-lun. 

Music  has  at  all  times  held  an  important 
part  in  the  political  system  of  the  Chinese. 
Its    influence  for  good  or  evil   on    the    people  is 


Music  and  Morals.  253 

regarded  as  potent,  and  according  to  a  cele- 
brated saying  of  Confucius,  it  gives  the  finish 
to  the  character  which  has  first  been  estab- 
lished by  the  rules  of  propriety.  So  marked 
has  the  impression  produced  by  it  been  held 
to  be,  that  Confucius,  when  on  his  way  to 
Ts'e,  recognized,  in  the  gait  and  manner  of 
a  boy  whom  he  met  carrying  a  picture,  the  in- 
fluence of  the^Shaou  music,  and  hurried  on  to 
the  capital  of  the  state  that  he  might  enjoy 
its  excellencies  to  perfection.  On  another  occa- 
sion, we  are  told  that  he  perceived  with  de- 
light, in  the  sound  of  stringed  instruments  and 
the  singing  at  Woo-shing,  the  effect  produced 
on  a  people  turbulent  by  nature,  by  the  rule 
of  his  disciple,  Tszeyew.  In  this,  as  in  other 
matters,  Confucius  merely  reproduced  the  opinions 
of  those  who  had  gone  before  him,  and  from 
the  time,  that  Ling-lun  made  the  first  pan- 
pipe, the  influence  of  music  on  morals  and 
politics  has  been  an  established  creed  amongst 
the  Chinese.  The  purity  of  the  prevailing  music 
became  the  test  of  the  virtues  of  the  sovereign, 
and  one  of  the  gravest  charges  brought  against 
the  dissolute  Chow  Sin,  the  last  emperor  of 
the    Yin    Dynasty    (b.  c.    1154-1122)    was    that, 


254  Music. 

to  gratify  his  consort,  the  notoriously  vicious 
T'au-ke,  he  substituted  licentious  airs  for  the 
chaste  music  of  his  ancestors.  Time  has  done 
little  to  change  the  opinions  of  the  Chinese 
on  this  subject,  and  at  the  present  day  a  care- 
ful watch  is  kept  over  the  efforts  of  composers 
by  the  Imperial  Board  of  music,  whose  duty 
is  to  keep  alive  the  music  of  the  ancients,  and 
to  suppress  all  compositions  which  are  not  \n 
harmony    with  it. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


T  is  a  curious  circumstance 
that  ill  China,  a  land  where 
there  exists  such  a  profound 
veneration  for  everything 
old,  there  should  not  be 
found  either  any  ancient 
buildings  or  old  ruins.  While 
every  other  nation  possessing 
a  history  has  its  monuments 
and  remains,  China  has  noth- 
ing that  illustrates  a  past 
age,  except  possibly  a  few 
pagodas  scattered  over  the 
land.  No  emperor  has  sought 
to  hand  down  his  name  to 
generations  5'et  to  come  by 
the  erection  of  any  build- 
ing, useful  or  ornamental.  It 
255 


256  Architecture, 

would  seem  as  though  their  original  nomadic 
origin  haunted  them  still,  and  that  the  recol- 
lection of  old  tent-homes  which  were  pitched 
to-day  and  struck  to-morrow,  still  denominates 
their  ideas  of  what  palaces  and  houses  should  be. 

That  there  is  an  abundant  suppl)'  of  the 
most  durable  materials  for  building  in  the  land 
is  certain,  and  that  for  many  centuries  the 
Chinese  have  been  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
brick-making  is  well-known,  but  they  have  reared 
no  building  possessing  enduring  stabilit}'.  Neither 
do  they  possess  any  respect  for  ancient  edifices, 
even  when  they  have  the  odor  of  sancity  at- 
taching to  them.  If  any  house  in  the  empire 
ought  to  have  been  preserved,  it  should  have 
been  that  of  Confucius,  and  yet  we  are  told 
that  in  the  reign  of  Woo-ti  (  b.  c.  140-86 ),  a 
prince  of  Loo  pulled  it  down  to  build  a  larger 
one  in  its  place. 

Not  only  does  the  ephemeral  nature  of  the 
tent  appear  in  the  slender  construction  of  Chi- 
nese houses,  but  even  in  shape  they  assume  a 
tent-like  form.  The  slope  of  the  roof,  and  its 
up-turned  corners,  coupled  with  the  absence  of 
upper  stories,  all  remind  one  irresistibly  of  a 
tent.     The    main    supports,  also,  of   the    roof  are 


Walls  and  Screens. 


257 


the  wooden  pillars,  the  walls  serving  only  to 
fill  up  the  intervening  spaces,  and  form  no  ad- 
dition to  the  stability  of  the  building.  As 
etiquette  provides  that,  in  houses  of  the  better 
class,  a  high  wall  should  surround  the  building, 
and  that  no  window  should  look  outward,  streets 
iu    the   fashionable   parts   of  cities  have    a   very 


A    CHINKSK    GATEWAY. 


dreary   aspect.       The    only   breaks    in    the    long 

line    of  dismal    wall,  are    the    front-doors,  which, 

however,    are    generally     closed,    or    if    by    'dny 

chance  they  should  be  left  open,  movable  screens 

bar   the   sight   of   all   beyond    the    doors    of    the 

munshang^s^  or  doorkeeper's  rooms.     If,  however, 

we   pass   round   one    such    screen,    we    find    our- 
17 


268  Architecture. 

selves  in  a  courtyard,  which  ma)'^  possibly  be 
laid  out  as  a  garden,  but  more  frequenily  is 
flagged  with  paving-stones.  On  either  side  are 
rooms  usually  occupied  by  servants,  while  in 
front  is  a  building  to  which  we  have  to  ascend 
by  two  or  three  steps,  and  through  which  a 
passage  runs,  having  a  room  or  rooms  on  either 
side.  At  the  other  end  of  the  passage  a  de- 
scent of  two  or  three  steps  lands  us  in  another 
courtyard,  in  the  rooms  surrounding  whicli  the 
family  live,  and  behind  this  again  are  the 
women's  apartments,  which  not  unfrequently 
look  into  a  garden  at  the  back.  A  passage, 
either  running  along  the  inside  of  tiie  court- 
yards or  beyond  them,  enables  servants  and 
tradespeople  to  pass  to  any  part  of  the  house 
without  trespassing  on  the  central  way,  which 
is  reserved  for  their  betters.  As  has  been  al- 
ready said,  wooden  pillars  support  the  roofs  of 
the  buildings,  which  are  a  reminiscence  of  the 
enrlier  tent,  and  the  intervals  between  these 
are  filled  up  with  brick  work,  but  often  so 
irregularlj-,  as  to  point  plainlj'  to  their  being 
no  integral  part  of  the  construction.  The  win- 
dow-frames are  wooden,  over  which  is  pasted 
either   paper  or  calico,  though    sometimes  pieces 


A  mandarin's  official  residence.  259 


Ceilings  and  Roofs.  261 

of  talc  are  substituted,  the  better  to  transmit 
the  light.  The  doors  are  almost  invariably  fold- 
ing doors,  and  turn  in  wooden  sockets.  The 
floors  of  the  rooms  are  generally  either  stone 
or  cement,  and  when  laid  down  with  wood,  are 
so  uneven  and  creaky,  as  considerably  to  miti- 
gate its  advantages.  Ceilings  are  not  often 
used,  the  roof  being  the  only  covering  to  the 
looms.  As  a  rule,  the  roof  is  the  most  orna- 
mental part  of  the  building.  The  woodwork 
which  supports  it  is  intricate  and  handsome, 
the  shape  is  picturesque,  and  the  glazed  tiles 
which  cover  it  make  it  present  a  bright  aspect. 
A  ridge-and-furrow-like  appearance  is  given  to 
it  by  putting,  at  regular  intervals,  on  the  under 
layer  of  flat  tiles,  lines  of  semi-circular  tiles 
from  the  summit  to  the  eaves.  Yellow  is  the 
color  commonly  used,  both  for  temples  and  those 
houses  which,  by  the  sumptuary  laws  in  force, 
are  entitled  to  have  glazed  tiles.  At  the  "altar 
of  heaven,"  at  Peking,  a  magnificent  effect  is 
produced  by  the  use  of  deep-blue  glazed  por- 
celain tiles,  which  in  hue  and  brightness  make 
no   bad   imitation   of  the   sky   above. 

Carpets   are   seldom  used,    more    especially  in 
Southern  China,  where  also   stoves  for  warming- 


262  Architecture. 

purposes  are  unknown.  In  the  north,  where,  in 
the  winter,  the  cold  is  very  great,  portable  charcoal 
stoves  are  employed,  in  addition  to  the  heated 
kangs*,  and  small  chafing  dishes  are  carried 
ubout  from  room  to  room.  The  main  depen- 
dence of  the  Chinese  for  personal  warmth  is 
i)u  clothes.  As  ^he  winter  approaches  garment 
is  added  to  garment,  and  furs  to  quilted  vest- 
ments, until  the  wearer  assumes  an  unwieldy 
and  exaggerated  shape.  Well-to-db  Chinamen 
seldom  take  strong  exercise,  and  they  are  there- 
fore able  to  bear  a  weight  of  clothes  which  to 
a   European   would  be   unendurable. 

Of  the  personal  comfort  obtainable  in  a  house 
Chinamen  are  strangely  ignorant.  Their  furniture 
is  of  the  hardest  and  most  uncompromising 
nature.  Chairs,  made  of  a  hard,  black  wood, 
and  of  an  angular  shape,  and  equally  unyield- 
ing divans,  covered  possibly  with  hard,  red, 
cushions,  are  the  only  seats  known  to  them. 
Their  beds  are  scarcely  more  comfortable,  and 
their  pillows  are  oblong  cubes  of  bamboo,  or 
other'  hard  material.  For  the  maintenance  of 
the  existing  fashions  of  female  head-dressing  this 
kind  of  pillow  is  essential   to  women  at  least, 

•A  Kang  is  a  raised  brick  bed  place.    See  page  303. 


Bandoline  and  Fashion.  263 

as  their  hair,  which  is  dressed  only  at  in- 
tervals of  days,  and  being  kept  in  its  gro- 
tesque shapes  by  the  abundant  use  of  bandoline, 
would  be  crushed  and  disfigured  if  lain  upou 
for  a  moment.  Women,  therefore,  who  make 
any  pretension  of  following  the  fashion,  are 
obliged  to  sleep  at  night  on  their  backs,  rest- 
ing the  nape  of  the  neck  on  the  pillow,  thus 
keeping  the  head  and  hair  free  fiom  contact 
witli  anything. 

The  use  of  paint  in  ornamenting  the  inside 
of  the  roofs  and  other  parts  of  the  house  is 
subject  to  sumptuary  laws,  which  regulate  not 
only  what  shall  be  painted,  but  also  what 
colors  shall  be  used.  No  let  or  hindrance, 
however,  is  placed  in  the  way  of  internal 
ornament,  and  the  wood  carvings,  representing 
flowers  and  fruits,  which  not  unfrequently  adorn 
the  doorways  and  walls  of  the  houses  of  the 
rich,  are  often  extremely  handsome,  combining 
beauty  of  design  with  wonderful  skill  in  ex- 
ecution. The  shapes  of  their  cabinets  and 
ornan>€ntal  pieces  of  furniture  are  very  taste- 
ful, and  the  rare  beauty  of  their  bronzes  and 
articles  of  porcelain-ware,  with  which  they  de- 
light   to  fill   their   rooms,   are    too    well   known 


264  Architecture. 

to  need  mention  here.  On  a  hot  day,  the  large 
reception-hall  in  a  wealthy  Chinamen's  house, 
shaded  from  every  ray  of  sun  by  the  wide, 
overhanging  roof,  lofty  and  spacious,  is  a  wel- 
come retreat,  while  the  absence  of  carpets  and 
"  stufif "  from  the  furniture,  gives  it  a  refresh- 
ingly  cool   aspect. 

Like  the  country  roads,  the  streets  in  towns 
differ  widely  in  construction  in  the  northern 
and  southern  portions  of  the  empire.  In  the 
south,  they  are  narrow  and  paved,  in  the  north 
they  are  wide  and  unpaved.  Both  constructions 
are  suited  to  the  local  wants  of  the  people. 
The  absence  of  wheel-traffic  in  the  southern 
provinces  makes  wide  streets  unnecessary,  while, 
by  contracting  their  width,  the  sun's  rays  have 
less  chance  of  beating  down  on  the  heads  of 
passers-by,  and  are  altogether  excluded  the 
more  easily  by  the  use  of  awnings  stretched 
across  from  roof  to  roof.  It  is  true  that  this 
is  done  at  the  expense  of  fresh  air,  but  even 
to  do  this  is  a  gain.  Shops  are  all  open  in 
front,  the  counters  forming  the  only  barriers 
between  the  street  and  their  contents.  In  the 
more  populous  parts  of  the  empire  the  streets 
of  large  cities   present   a   very  animated  appear- 


Street  Scenes. 


265 


ance.  Crowds  of  pedestrians,  sedan-chairs  carry- 
ing numbers  of  the  wealthy  and  official  classes, 
horsemen,  and  coolies  carrying  their  loads  bal- 
anced at  each  end  of  bamboos  slung  across 
their  shoulders,  jostle  one  another  in  the  nar- 
row  thoroughfares,  in   such   close    and   constant 


A    CHI^KS£  8UUF. 


proximity,  that  it  is  due  only  to  the  untiring 
patience  and  good  humor  of  the  crowd  that  any 
movement  is  possible. 


266  Architecture. 

This  inconvenience  is  avoided  in  the  wide 
streets  of  the  cities  in  the  north,  where  the 
accommodation  of  wheel-traffic  make  more  room 
necessary ;  but  in  the  present  degenerate  con- 
dition of  municipal  regulations  the  wide  streets 
are  not  an  unmixed  good.  Though  professing 
to  be  macadamized,  they  are  destitute  of  metal,* 
with  the  natural  consequences  that  in  wet 
weather  they  are  sloughs,  and  in  dry  seasons 
they  are  covered  inches  deep  in  dust.  Of  the 
large  cities  of  the  north  and  south,  Peking 
and  Canton  may  be  taken  as  typical  examples, 
and  certainly,  with  the  exception  of  the  palace, 
the  walls,  and  certain  imperial  temples,  the 
streets  of  Peking  compare  very  unfavorably 
with  those  of  Canton.  The  shops  have  a  meaner 
and  less  prosperous  look,  and  there  is  a  general 
air  of  dirt  and  decay  about  the  city.  From 
the  fact  that  the  better  class  of  houses  are 
enclosed  within  high  blank  walls,  the  existence 
of  the  palaces  belonging  to  the  imperial  princes, 
instead  of  brightening  the  aspect  of  the  town, 
serves  onh'  to  add  to  its  dreariness.  These 
palaces,  or  "foos,"  of  which  there  are  fifty  at 
Peking,    are     given    in     perpetuity    to     certain 

*  Proken  stones  used  for  making  roads  are  known  in  England  as  "  metal." 


Foo»  and  their  Compartments.  267 

princes  of  the  blood  for  signal  services,  and 
also  to  sons  of  the  emperor  for  their  lives  and 
for  two  later  generations,  the  great  grandson 
of  the  original  recipient  being  in  each  case 
obliged  to  resign  the  gift  again  to  the  sover- 
eign. The  general  plan  of  one  of  these  "foos" 
is  thus  described  by  Doctor  Williamson:  "A 
foo  has  in  front  of  it  two  large  stone  lions, 
with  a  house  for  musicians  and  for  gate-keep- 
ers. Through  a  lofty  gateway,  on  which  are 
hung  tablets  inscribed  with  the  prince's  titles, 
the  visitor  enters  a  large,  square  court,  with  a 
paved  terrace  in  the  centre,  which  fronts  the 
principal  hall.  Here,  on  days  of  ceremony,  the 
slaves  and  dependants  may  be  ranged  in  rev- 
erential position  before  the  prince,  who  sits  as 
master  of  the  household,  in  the  hall.  Behind 
the  principal  hall  are  two  others,  both  fac- 
ing, like  it,  the  south.  These  buildings  all 
have  five  or  seven  compartments  divided  by 
pillars  which  support  the  roof,  and  the  three 
or  five  in  the  centre  are  left  open  to  form 
one  large  hall,  while  the  sides  are  petitioned 
off  td  make  rooms.  Beyond  the  gable  there 
is  usually  an  extension  called  the  wi-fang,  lit- 
erally,   the   ear   house,   from    its   resemblance   in 


268  Architecture. 

position  to  that  organ.  On  each  side  of  the 
large  courts  fronting  the  halls  is  a  side-house, 
*siang  fang,'  of  one  or  two  stories.  The  gar- 
den of  a  foo  is  on  the  west  side,  and  is 
usually  arranged  as  an  ornamental  park,  with 
a  lake,  wooded  mounds,  fantastic  arbors,  small 
Buddhist  temples,  covered  passages,  and  a  large, 
open  hall  for  drinking  tea  and  entertaining 
guests,  which  is  called  Hwa-tiiig.  Garden  and 
house  are  kept  private,  and  effectually  guarded 
from  the  intrusion  of  strangers  by  a  high  wall, 
and  at  the  doors  a  numerous  staff  of  messen- 
gers. The  stables  are  usuall}"^  on  the  east  side,' 
and  contain  stout  Mongol  ponies,  large  Hi 
horses,  and  a  goodly  supply  of  sleek,  well-kept 
mules,  such  as  North  China  furnishes  in  abun- 
dance. A  prince  or  princess  has  a  retinue  of 
about   twenty,    mounted    on   ponies   or   mules." 

As  these  Foos  are  built  on  an  officially  pre- 
scribed plan,  there  is  very  little  variety  among 
them,  and  the  same  sumptuary'  laws  which 
regulate  their  construction,  take  cognizance  also 
of  the  country  mansions  of  the  great.  These 
were  originally  occupied  onl}'  by  "  Kung "  or 
Dukes,  and  were  built  on  much  the  same 
model    as   the    Foo,   exce|)t   that    their    grounds 


IN    A    CHINESE    GARDEN 


Summer-Housei  and   Walls.  271 

were  more  extensive,  and  the  detached  pavil- 
ions and  summer-houses  more  numerous.  The 
gardens  surrounding  these  and  other  large 
country  houses  are  wonderfully  "landscaped." 
Every  inequality  of  nature,  whether  hill  or 
valley,  rock  or  dale,  is  represented  in  them, 
while  artificial  water,  ciaverns,  and  grotesque 
bridges,  complete  the  microcosm  they  are  intended 
to  represent. 

Every  Chinese  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
which  in  the  present  state  of  the  military 
knowledge  of  the  people,  is  often  sufficient  ta 
turn  back  the  tide  of  war.  These  walls  vary 
very  much  in  height  and  state  of  repair  with  the 
circumstances  of  each  cit}'.  Those  surrounding 
Peking  are  probably  the  finest  and  best  kept 
in  the  empire.  In  height  they  are  about  forty 
feet,  and  the  same  in  width.  The  top,  whichi 
is  defended  by  massive  battlements,  is  welH 
paved,  and  is  kept  in  excellent  order.  Over 
each  gate,  and  there  are  twelve  of  them,  is 
built  a  fortified  tower  between  eighty  and 
ninety  feet  high,  and  each  is  further  defended 
on  the  outside  by  a  large  semi-circular  enceinte, 
with  walls  of  the  same  dimensions  as  those  of 
the    main    structure.     Seen    from    the    wall,   all 


272 


Architecture. 


Chinese  cities  present  quite  an  uninteresting 
appearance.  The  dwelling-liouses,  being  almost 
identical,  both  in  lieight  and  construction,  the 
scene    is    one    of    curious    monotony,   wliich    is 


A   WAR-TOWER. 


broken   only   by   the    uplifted    roofs   of    temples 
and   palaces. 

In  every  city  the  temples  form  a  noticeable 
feature,  and  prominent  among  them  are  invari- 
ably those  dedicated  to  Confucius.  The  law 
provides  that  at  least  one  of  these  should  be 
built    in   every   city   and   market-town    through- 


A    CITY    GATE 


Privileges  of  Grates.  275 

out  the  empire,  and  it  is  ordained  with  equal 
rigidity  that  it  should  consist  of  three  court- 
yards, built  one  behind  the  other,  and  all  fac- 
ing south.  The  entrances  should  be  on  the 
eastern  and  western  faces  of  the  outer  court- 
yard, and  only  when  a  native  of  the  district 
has  won  the  supreme  honor  at  the  competitive 
examinations,  viz.,  the  title  of  Chwang-yuen,  is 
the  southern  wall,  which  is  alwa3'S  painted  red, 
pierced  for  a  gateway.  Even  when  this  is 
done,  the  right  of  passing  through  it  is  re- 
served only  for  emperors  and  Chwang-yuens, 
who  alone  also  have  the  right  of  crossing  the 
bridge  that  spans  the  semi-circular  pond,  which 
occupies  part  of  the  lower  end  of  the  court- 
yard. In  the  riglit-hand  corner,  at  the  upper 
end,  is  the  house  where  the  animals  for  sac- 
rifice are  kept,  and  on  the  opposite  side  is 
the  pavilion  where  the  chief  worshipper  rests 
when  first  entering  the  temple,  and  where  he 
dons  his  official  clothes.  Across  the  northern 
end  of  the  passage  runs  a  large  hall,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  which  is  the  "  Gate  of  Great  Perfec- 
tion," and  through  which  those  only  who  are 
privileged  to  enter  the  temple  by  the  southern 
wall,   and    to    cross   the    bridge,    are    allowed    to 


276  Architecture. 

pass  into  the  next  or  principal  court.  On  each 
side  of  this  are  covered  passages,  containing 
the  tablets  of  illustrious  Confucianists,  famous 
for  their  piety  and  learning.  Cypresses  grow 
in  the  intervening  space,  and  here  the  wor- 
shippers prostrate  themselves  before  the  tablet, 
or,  in  some  cases,  the  image  of  the  Sage  which 
rests  on  an  altar  in  the  "  Hall  of  Great  Per- 
fection," that  faces  southward.  On  either  side 
of  the  high  altar  are  arranged  the  tablets  and 
altars  of  the  four  principal  disciples  of  Confu- 
cius, and  of  the  twelve  "Wise  Men."  In  the 
hindermost  court,  stands  the  "  Ancestral  Hall 
of  Exalted  Sages,"  which  contains  the  tablets 
of  the  five  ancestors  of  Confucius,  of  his  half- 
brother,  of  the  fathers  of  the  principal  dis- 
ciples, and  of  other  worthies.  The  largest  Con- 
fucian temple  at  Peking  is  a  very  handsome 
structure.  The  roof,  which  is  painted  an  azure 
blue,  is  elaborately  decorated,  and  rows  of 
cedar-trees,  which  are  said  to  be  upwards  of 
five  hundred  years  old,  adorn  the  courtyards. 
Its  most  interesting  contents  are  a  set  of  ten 
stone  drums,  on  each  of  which  is  inscribed  a 
stanza  of  poetry.  It  is  currently  believed  that 
these   drums    were    first   shaped   in   the   days   of 


Buddhist  and  Confucian  Temples.        277 

Yaou  and  Shun  (b.  c.  2366-2205),  but,  unfortu- 
nately for  this  theory,  the  forms  of  the  characters 
point  to  their  having  been  cut  at  a  later  pe- 
riod, probably  the  seventh  or  .eighth  century  b.  c. 

The  Buddhist  temples  differ  little  in  general 
construction  from  the  Confucian  temples.  Like 
them,  they  are  built  in  a  succession  of  court- 
yards, minutiae  of  which  are  different,  and  in 
the  all-important  point  of  the  objects  of  worship 
they  are,  of  course,  dissimilar.  In  place  of  the 
tablets  of  Confucius  and  his  four  disciples, 
stand  images  of  Buddha,  Past,  Present,  and 
Future,  and  the  shrines  of  the  twelve  Wise 
Men  are  exchanged  for  a  number  of  idols 
representing  the  numerous  incarnations  of  Bud- 
dha. In  a  few  of  the  larger  temples  stand 
Dagobas,  containing  relics  of  the  founder  of 
the  religion.  "  On  each  side,"  says  Archdeacon 
Gray,  "of  the  large  courtj-ards,  in  which  the 
principal  halls  of  the  temple  are  erected,  are 
rows  of  cells  for  the  monks,  a  visitors'  hall, 
a  refectory,  and  sometimes  a  printing-office, 
where  the  liturgical  services  used  by  the  priests, 
new  .works  on  the  tenets  of  Buddha,  and  tracts 
for  general   distribution,   are   printed." 

Among   the   most   ancient  buildings   in  China 


278  Architecture. 

are  the  Bmidhist  pagodas,  which  were  first 
built  on  the  introduction  of  Buddliism  from 
India.  Originally  they  were  designed  as  de- 
positories of  relics  of  Buddha,  but  in  later 
ages  many  have  been  erected  to  form  the 
tombs  of  celebrated  Buddhist  priests,  or  as 
piemorials  of  saintly  parsonages,  or  again,  to 
secure  beneficial  geomantic  influences  for  the 
surrounding  districts.  Pagodas  are  generally 
built  of  bricks,  and  are  made  to  consist  of 
an  uneven  number  of  stories;  five,  seven,  and 
nine  being  the  most  common  numbers.  In 
most  cases  the  vs^alls  are  double,  and  between 
the  inner  and  outer  masonry  winds  the  stair- 
case leading  to  the  summit,  from  which,  by 
means  of  doorways,  access  is  obtained  to  the 
chambers  on  each  flat.  The  outer  wall,  which 
invariably  tapers,  is  usually  octagonal,  and  its 
surface  is  broken  by  the  projecting  roofs  of 
tiles  which  surmount  the  difi^erent  stories.  These 
roofs,  turned  up  at  the  corners,  covered  with 
green  glazed  tiles,  and  hung  about  with  bells, 
form  the  most  attractive  features  of  the  build- 
ing. In  some  pagodas  containing  relics  of 
Buddha,  as  is  the  case  with  one  at  How- 
chow,    no    stories    divide    the    interior    of    the 


The  Most  Magnificent  Pagoda.  279 

pagoda,  but  in  the  centre  of  the  ground  floor 
rises  a  marble  pagoda-shaped  column,  beneath 
which  rests  the  relic,  upon  the  sides  of  which 
are  carved  ten  thousand  small  images  of  Buddha. 
The  most  celebrated  and  magnificent  pagoda 
ever  built  in  China  was  the  well-known  por- 
celain tower  at  Nanking,  which  was  erected 
hj  the  Emperor  Yung-loh  (1403-1425),  to  com- 
memorate the  virtues  of  his  mother.  The  outer 
Avails  were  built  of  bricks  of  the  finest  white 
porcelain,  and  the  inner  walls  of  ordinary 
bricks  encased  in  richly-enameled  yellow  and 
red  tiles.  In  shape  it  was  an  octagon.  It 
consisted  of  nine  stories,  and  stood  about  two 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  height.  The  pin- 
nacle was  surmounted  by  a  large  gilt  ball 
fixed  to  the  top  of  an  iron  rod,  which  was 
encircled  by  nine  iron  rings,  and  on  the  roof 
were  fastened  five  large  pearls  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  the  city  from  as  many  evils. 
Nineteen  years  and  a  million  dollars  were  spent 
in  building  this  unique  structure,  which,  after 
standing  for  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
was  so  completely  destroyed  by  the  Tai-ping 
rebels  in  1856,  that  one  brick  was  not  left 
standing   on    another. 


CHAPTER  X. 


DRAWING. 


^T^HE  art  of  drawing  i& 
held  in  great  esteem 
in  China,  and  the  works 
of  the  most  renowned 
artists  are  eagerly 
sought  after,  and  are 
as  carefully  treasured 
as  those  of  Raffaelle 
or  Rubens  are  among 
ourselves.  Drawing 
claims  for  itself  a  great 
antiquity,  and  as  is  the 
case  with  some  other 
arts,  it  seems  to  have 
had  its  origin  among 
the  aborigines.  It  is  curious  also  to  observe  that 
Honan,  the  cradle  of  much  that  has  since  in- 
creased the  sum  of  Chinese  civilization,  is  cred 

280 


Artistic  Crrowth.  288 

ited  with  haviug  been  the  home  of  drawing  as 
well  as  of  the  written  character.  Fuh-he,  who 
invented  the ,  celebrated  eight  diagrams,  made 
drawings  and  plans,  we  are  told,  in  imitation 
of  the  records  he  found  at  tiie  Jung  river  in 
Honan,  and  Hwang-te  is  said  to  have  obtained 
a  likeness  of  Ts'ang  Hieh,  the  inventor  of  writ- 
ing, from  the  Lo  river.  These  and  other  tradi- 
tions appear  to  prove  that  the  inscriptions 
drawn  on  banks  of  the  rivers  by  the  abori- 
gines of  that  part  of  China,  served  not  only 
as  aids  for  the  formation  of  new  characters  by 
the  Chinese,  but  also  as  patterns  for  designs. 

From  that  beginning,  the  art  of  drawing 
grew,  and  though  it  cannot  be  said  that  the 
Chinese  are  an  artistic  people,  it  is  equally 
untrue  to  deny  that  they  are  possessed  of  great 
skill  in  producing  wonderful  effects  with  a 
few  strokes  of  the  pencil.  They  have  never 
understood  perspective,  but  some  of  their  land- 
scapes are  admirable  for  their  picturesqueness 
and  for  their  life-like  representations  of  nature. 
Their  studies  of  trees,  boughs  and  flowers  are 
exceedingly  accurate  and  tasteful,  and  their  use 
of  colors  is  highly  effective,  but,  after  all,  there 
is   a  sameness  in  their  drawings  which  suggests 


284  Drawing. 

that  the  art  is  mechanical,  and  a  study  of  the 
works  on  drawing  fully  confirms  the  suspicion. 
In  these  we  find  detailed  directions  for  repre- 
senting every  kind  of  scenery  and  under  all 
circumstances.  In  all  such  works  mountains 
and  streams  are  described  as  the  highest  objects 
for  the  painter's  skill,  and  the  student  is  told 
how  to  depict  their  beauties  under  every  vary- 
ing circumstance  of  season  and  weather.  The 
ideal  mountain  should  have  a  cloud  encircling 
its  "  waist,"  which  should  hide  from  view  a 
part  of  the  stream  which  should  pour  down 
its  sides,  over  rocks,  in  waterfalls.  A  temple, 
or  house,  shaded  and  half-concealed  by  a  grove, 
should  be  nestled  in  its  embrace,  and  a  liigh 
bridge  should  span  the  neighboring  torrent,  over 
which  a  winding  road,  bordered  by  trees, 
should  lead  around  the  mountain.  At  intervals 
travellers  should  be  seen  mounting  to  the  sum- 
mit. Three  sides  of  a  rock,  if  possible,  should 
be  shown,  and  water  should  appear  as  though 
ruffled  by  wind.  A  ford  is  a  fitting  adjunct 
to  a  precipitous  bank,  and  smoke  and  trees 
add  to  the  picturesqueness  of  a  stretch  of  water. 
A  large  sheet  of  water  should  alwajs  be  dotted 
with   sails.     A  solitar}-  city  in  the  distance,  and 


CHINESE    ARTIST    AT    WORK. 


Rule8  of  Art.  287 

a  market  town  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain, 
may   be    introduced   with    advantage. 

Houses  should  always  form  part  of  forest 
scenery,  and  an  old  tree  with  broken  and 
twisted  roots  is  an  appropriate  finish  to  a 
rocky  cliff.  The  boughs  of  trees  having  leaves 
should  be  supple,  but  if  bare,  should  be  stiff. 
Pine  bark  should  be  drawn  as  fishes'  scales 
and  cedar  bark  is  always,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, entwining.  The  branches  on  the  left 
side  of  a  tree  should  be  longer  than  those  on 
the  right.  Rocks  should  be  heavy  above  and 
slight  beneath.  There  should  never  be  too 
much  either  of  smoke  or  cloud,  nor  should  woods 
have  too  many  trees.  On  a  snowy  day  no 
cloud  or  smoke  should  be  seen,  and  when  rain 
is  falling  distant  mountains  should  be  invisi- 
ble. Such  are  some  of  the  directions  given  for 
landscape  drawing,  and  a  glance  at  Chinese 
pictures  of  scenery  is  enough  to  show  how 
closely  the  rules  of  the  text-books  are  followed. 

Writers  on  art  advise  artists,  before  begin- 
ning to  paint  a  flower,  to  examine  it  carefully 
from  above,  so  as  to  become  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  its  every  aspect ;  and  to  watch 
the     shadow    cast    in    bright    moonlight    by    a 


288  Drawing. 

bamboo-tree  on  a  white  wall.  The  different 
aspects  of  the  clouds  in  the  four  seasons  should 
be  carefully  noted.  In  spring,  clouds  appear 
in  harmonious  concord ;  in  summer,  they  con- 
gregate in  profusion ;  in  autumn,  they  are  in- 
termittent and  light,  and  in  winter,  they  are 
dark   and   cold. 

With  the  same  minuteness  every  branch  of 
the  art  is  legislated  for,  and  young  artists  de- 
siring to  make  themselves  proficient  in  an}^  di- 
rection, will  find  full  instructions  in  the  manuals 
published  for  their  guidance.  Admirable,  how- 
ever, as  are  some  of  the  effects  produced,  the 
result  of  drawing  by  rule  is  to  produce  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  pure!}'  mechanical  skill,  and 
to  reduce  the  exercise  of  the  imagination  to  a 
minimum.  The  birds  and  flowers,  mountains 
and  streams,  which  seem  to  have  been  struck 
off  in  a  few  lines  as  the  spirit  of  the  artist 
moved  him.  ;ire  really  the  products  of  patient 
and  repeated  imitation,  and  the  probabilit}'  is, 
that  the  artist  whose  birds  or  flowers  we  all 
so  much  ndmire,  would  be  quite  unable  to  draw 
a  dog  or  a  house,  if  suddenly  culled  upon  to 
do  so.  The  books  enforce  the  doctrine  that 
there  is  no  difference  between  learning  to  write 


Striking  Effects.  289 

and  learning  to  draw.  It  is  possible,  by  con- 
stant application,  to  learn  to  write  characters 
correctly  and  elegantly,  and  the  same  is  the 
case  with  pictures.  This  is  not  art  of  a  high 
order,  but  it  produces  striking  and  well  arranged 
effects.  So  skilful  was  a  certain  artist  of  the 
tiiird  century  in  representing  insects,  that  it  is 
said  that  having  carelessly  added  the  form  of 
a  fly  to  a  picture  he  had  painted  for  his 
sovereign,  the  emperor,  on  receiving  the  paint- 
ing, raised  his  hand  to  brush  the  insect  away. 
The  rules  laid  down  for  landscape  drawing 
cannot,  of  course,  apply  to  portrait  painting,  in 
wliich  the  artist  has  to  follow  a  fresh  model 
in  every  picture ;  and  for  this  reason,  Chinese 
portraits  are  not  generally  successful.  Occasion- 
ally, artists  have  arisen  who  have  deservedly 
won  renown  in  this  branch  of  the .  art.  One 
of  the  earliest  of  these  was  Maou  Yen-chow, 
who,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Mayers,  "having 
been  commissioned  by  Yuen-te,  of  the  Han 
Dynasty  (48-32  b.  c),  to  paint  the  portraits  of 
the  beauties  of  his  harem,  is  said  to  have  fal- 
sified the  lineaments  of  the  lovely  Chaou  Keun 
on    being    denied    a     bribe,    and     subsequently^ 

on  the    lady's  real  beauty   bein^   discovered   hy 
19 


290  Drawing. 

the  emperor,  to  have  fled  with  her  true  por- 
trait to  the  Khan  of  the  Hiuug-uu.  The  Khan, 
fired  by  the  hope  of  obtaining  possession  of 
so  peerless  a  beauty,  invaded  China  in  irre- 
sistible force,  and  only  consented  to  retire  be- 
yond the  Wall  when  the  lady  was  surrendered 
to  him.  She  accompanied  her  savage  captor, 
bathed  in  tears,  until  the  banks  of  the  Amur 
were  reached,  when,  rather  than  go  beyond  the 
bonndry,  she  plunged  into  the  waters  of  the 
stream.  Her  corpse  was  interred  on  the  banks 
of  the  river,  and  it  is  related,  that  the  tumulus 
raised  above  her  grave  remained  covered  with 
undying  verdure." 


CHAPTER   XL 


TRAVELLING. 


irpE  A  YELLING  in  China  is 
..:  slow  and  leisurely.  Time 
is  of  little  or  uo  object  to 
the  fortunate  inhabitants 
of  that  country,  who  are 
content  to  be  carried  for 
long  distances  by  cart, 
boat,  sedan-chair,  or  on 
horseback,  without  the 
least  troubling  themselves 
about  tlie  pace  at  which  they  journey.  The 
prevailing  modes  of  conveyance  var}'  in  accord- 
ance with  the  nature  of  the  country.  In  the 
north,  where  the  country  is  level  and  open,  the 
existence  of  broad  roads  enables  the  inhabitants 
to  use  carts  for  the  conve5^ance  of  passengers 
and  goods.     These  carts  are  rude  in  construction 

291 


292 


Travelling. 


and  extremely  uncomfortable.  Those  used  as 
carriages  consist  of  the  bed  of  the  cart,  with  a 
tilted  cover  and  two  wheels.  They  are  entirely 
destitute  of  springs,  and  the  passenger  sits  cross- 
legged    on    the    bed    of   the    uart,    exactly   above 


A    CHINESE    JUNK. 


the  axle,  without  any  support  for  his  back.  Even 
on  good  roads  such  conveyances  would  be  un- 
comfortable ;  but  in  China,  where  the  roads 
are  rarely,  if  ever,  mended,  and  are  either  stone 


The   Great  Art  in   Travelling.  293 

causeways  or  uiiraade  tracks,  they  are  to  all 
those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  them,  iustru- 
meuts  of  torture.  The  great  art  in  travelling 
in  them  is  to  sit  bolt  upright,  to  allow  the  body 
to  sway  to  and  fro  with  the  motion  of  the 
cart,  and  to  avoid  touching  the  sides.  In  Pe- 
king, and  other  large  cities,  the  private  carriages 
of  rich  men  sometimes  have  the  wheels  placed 
behind  the  cart,  so  that  the  cart  itself  is  swung 
as  it  were,  between  the  animal  drawing  it  and 
the  axle.  In  this  way,  the  severe  jolts,  which 
harass  the  passenger  seated  immediatel}'"  above 
the  axle,  are  avoided.  Carts  for  the  carriage 
of  goods  generally  have  only  two  wheels,  though 
there  are  also  wagons  with  four.  Mules  are 
generally  driven  in  private  carriages  and  in  the 
best  hack  carts,  but  other  carts  are  drawn  by 
ponies,  donkeys,  or  oxen,  as  the  convenience 
of  the    owner  dictates. 

For  riding  purposes,  also,  mules  are  preferred 
to  ponies.  They  are  considered  to  he  more 
manageable,  and  when  taught,  as  they  generally 
are,  to  amble,  their  pace  is  easy  and  expeditions. 
History  tells  us  that  horses  are  not  indigenous 
to  China,  and  this  statement  is  borne  out  by 
the   fact  that   the    hieroglyphic    now   used   for  a 


294  Travelling. 

horse  was  originally  drawn  to  represent  a  don- 
key, the  ears  being  long  —  out  of  all  proportion 
to  those  of  a  horse.  Messengers  and  bearers 
of  oflBcial  despatches  generally  ride,  but,  as  a 
rule,  travellers  prefer  going  long  journeys  either 
by  cart  or  by  boat.  In  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung, and  in  other  mountainous  districts  in 
Northern  China,  a  kind  of  horse  palanquin  is 
used  by  travellers.  Either  two  ponies  or  two 
mules  are  harnessed  in  the  poles,  one  in  front 
and  one  behind,  and  they  thus  carry  the  palan- 
quin  between   them. 

The  most  usual  way  of  travelling  throughout 
the  empire  is  by  boat.  In  everj'  direction  the 
natural  "water  highways"  dissect  the  country, 
and  in  parts  where  these  fall  short  of  the 
wants  of  the  people,  they  are  supplemented  by 
canals.  The  boats  are  admirably  adapted  to 
the  people  and  the  circumstances.  They  are 
built  rather  for  comfort  than  for  •  speed,  and 
their  clean  and  comfortable  cabins  and  easy 
motion  form  a  most  desirable  contrast  to  the 
jolting  of  carts,  the  monotony  of  position  nec- 
essary in  a  sedan-chair,  or  the  fatigue  of  rid- 
ing. The  official  junks  in  which  mandarins 
travel   are    very  like    floating  hon^es.     They  are 


Junk»  of  Various  Sorts.  296 

fitted  up  with  every  convenience,  and  are  manned 
by  an  army  of  boatmen,  who  tow,  pole  or  row 
the  vessel  along,  as  the  case  may  be,  when 
the   wind    is    adver.se        On    all    such    boats    the 


CHINESE    BOATS. 


flag  of  the  mandarin  on  board  is  hoisted  on 
the  mast- 
Less  distinguished  passengers  have  to  put  up 
with  less  commodious  junks,  but  what  they  lack 
in  comfort,  they  make  up  in  superior  facilities 
for   travelling.     Not  like  the  masts  of   mandarin 


296 


Travelling. 


juuks,  which  are  so  arranged  that  the  sail  can 
only  be  hoisted  when  the  wind  is  "right  aft," 
the  rig  of  the  smaller  passenger-vessels  is  such 
as   to   enable  them  to    sail   as  near  the    wind  as 


A    MANDAKIN'S  JUNK. 


a  Portsmouth  wherr}-.  They  are  considerably 
lighter  also,  and  are  consequent!}^  far  more 
easily  towed.  The  fore  part  of  such  vessels 
consists  of  a  flush  deck,  the  boards  of  which 
are  movable,  and  the  holds,  which,  in  the  day- 
time, these    conceal,  serve    as    sleeping-places  for 


Sea-going  Junks.  297 

the  crew.  Captain  Gill,  in  his  "  River  of  Golden 
Sand,"  thus  describes  the  above-deck  arrange- 
ments of  the  boat  in  which  he  lived  during  a 
part  of  his  voyage  up  the  Yang-tsze  keang ;  — 
"  The  bows,  for  a  space  of  twenty  feet,  were 
uncovered ;  aft  of  this  a  house  about  twenty 
feet  long  was  built  right  across  the  deck,  leav- 
ing no  room  to  pass  around  the  sides.  There 
was  a  small  open  space  aft  of  the  house,  and 
right  over  the  stern  another  high  building, 
where  our  skipper  lived,  was  piled  up  to  a 
great  height.  The  house  was  about  seven  feet 
high,  and  was  divided  into  four  compartments, 
giving  us  a  living  room  and  two  bedrooms  for 
ourselves,    and    a    room    for   the    servants." 

The  sea-going  junks  are  very  much  larger 
than  the  river  craft,  and  are  built  on  different 
tlines.  They  are  higli  at  both  ends,  and  are 
square  at  bow  and  stern.  On  the  latter  is 
painted  a  phoenix  standing  on  a  rock  in  the 
midst  of  the  ocean,  and  at  the  bows  two  large 
staring  eyes,  reminding  one,  as  Mr.  Tylor  has 
pointed  out,  of  tlie  eye  of  Osiris,  which  was 
painted  on  the  Egyptian  funeral-bark  that  car- 
ried the  dead  across  the  lake  to  the  western 
burial-place.     The    Canton-English-speaking   Chi- 


298  Travelling. 

uese  of  Hong-kong  have  another  explauation 
of  the  custom.  "  No  have  got  eye,"  they  say, 
*'  how  can  see  !  no  can  see,  how  can  savey !  "  * 
All  junks  of  this  kind  are  divided  into 
water-tight  compartments,  and  are  capable  of 
carrying  several  thousand  tons  of  cargo.  They 
are  generally  three-masted,  and  carry  a  huge 
main-sail,  made  like  the  others,  of  matting.  The 
rudder  projects  considerably  beyond  the  stern, 
and  is  large  in  proportion  compared  with  those 
of  European  vessels,  giving  the  helmsman  im- 
mense power  of  turning  the  vessel.  The  choice 
of  felicitous  names  by  which  to  clnisten  the 
junks  is  a  matter  of  serious  consideration  to 
the  owners  who  love  to  adorn  the  masts  and 
rudders  with  mottoes  of  good  omen.  Though 
possessed  of  the  compass,  Chinese  sailors  are 
without  the  knowledge  necessary  for  taking 
nautical  observations,  and  consequently  they  are 
compelled  to  hug  the  land,  or,  where  that  is 
impossible,  to  trust  themselves  entirely  to  the 
guidance  of  the  compass  until  they  reach  some 
coast    with    which    they   are    acquainted. 

In  these    circumstances  it  may  readily  be  im- 
agined that  the   loss  of  junks  and  lives  on  the 

•  Having  no  eye,  how  can  it  see  ?  not  seeing,  how  can  it  know  ? 


Typhoons  Sweep  the  Sea. 


299 


China  coasts  is  annually  very  large.  Not  only 
are  there  the  ordinary  difficulties  of  navigation 
to  be  contended  with,  but  the  southern  waters 
are     periodically     visited     by     typhoons,    whioh 


CHINESE   COASTING   VESSELS. 


sweep  the  seas  affected  by  them  of  every  junk 
outside  the  shelter  of  harbor,  and  even  within 
these  limits  do  incalculable  damage.  In  1862 
and,  1871   the    neighborhood  of  Canton    was   de- 


300  Travellinff. 

vastated  by  two  such  storms,  and,  says  Arch- 
deacon Gray,  "  these  were,  if  possible,  surpassed 
in  violeuce,  and  in  the  number  of  casualities 
which  attended  them,  by  a  typhoon  wliich  visited 
Hong-koug  and  Macao  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, 1874.  According  to  the  inhabitants, 
this  destructive  cyclone  was  the  greatest  ca- 
lamity which  had  befallen  Hong-kong  and  Macao 
within  the  memory  of  man.  it  has  been  reck- 
oned that  twenty  thousand  persons  perished  in 
the  seas  and  rivers  of  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung   on  that   occasion. 

The  immense  number  of  people  who  live  in 
boats  on  the  rivers  in  this  part  of  China  render 
typhoons  especiall}'  destructive.  For  the  most 
part  these  boat-people  are  not  of  Chinese  origin, 
but  are  remnants  of  the  aborigines  of  the 
countr3\  They  are  known  as  Tanka,  and  are 
nearly  related  to  the  Miaou-tsze  of  Southern  and 
Western  China.  At  the  present  day  there  Ls 
not  much  in  their  appearance  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Chinese,  except  that  they  are 
more  vivacious  in  manner,  and  blighter  in  coun- 
tenance ;  and  they  have  so  entirely  discarded 
their  own  language  in  favor  of  Chinese  that 
their  speech    in    no   way   betrays    them.      They 


Tankas   Ostracised.  301 

are  regarded  with  an  affectation  of  contempt 
by  the  Cantonese,  who  have  nicknamed  them 
Shwui  ke,  "  Water  fowl,"  or  Hoi  cKat.,  "  Sea 
otters/'  At  various  times  they  have  been  ra,uch 
persecuted,  and  attempts  have  not  been  want- 
ing to  subject  them  to  complete  ostracism.  Even 
now  marriages  between  the  Tankas  and  Can- 
tonese are  rarely  celebrated,  and  their  youths 
are  not  allowed  to  compete  at  the  literary  exam- 
inations. That  the  race  has  ever  survived  is 
a  constant  wonder,  seeing  the  hourly  and  al- 
most momentary  danger  of  drowning  in  which 
the  children  live  on  board  their  boats.  That 
they  do  not  all  fall  overboard  from  the  unpro- 
tected decks  is  only  another  proof  that  human 
beings  can  adapt  themselves  to  any  circum- 
stances. The  only  precaution  that  is  ever 
taken,  even  in  the  case  of  infants,  is  to  tie 
an  empty  gourd  between  their  shoulders,  so  that, 
should  they  fall  into  the  water,  the}'^  may  be 
kept  afloat  until  help  comes.  Hardly  a  less 
cause  for  amazement  is  the  way  in  which  whole 
families  and  large  families  pack  themselves  away 
in  their  boats.  A  space  which  would  appear 
infinitely  cramped  and  confined  to  one  of  us 
serves  a  father  and  mother,  sometimes  a  njother- 


302 


Travelling. 


in-law,  and  a  host  of  children,  for  every  pur- 
pose of  life.  Tliey  are  born  in  their  boa,ts» 
they  marry  in  their  boats,  and  they  die  there. 
An  important  advantage  of  travelling  by 
boat  in  China  is,  that  by  so  doing  one 
avoids  the  necessity  of  going  to  inns.     He  carries 


PASSEUGKK   BOATS. 


everything  he  wants  with  him.  The  stove  that 
cooks  the  boatmen's  dinner  cooks  his  also,  and 
even  in  the  smallest  passenger  boats  he  may 
sleep  comfortabh',  protected  from  rain  and 
cold   by  the   mat-ccvering.     Compared   with   the 


A  Raised  Brick  Bed-place.  308 

accommodatiou  commonly  found  in  village  inns,. 
boats  are  clean  and  commodious.  Except  in 
very  large  inns,  a  single  courtyard  surrounded 
by  mean  and  dirty  rooms  is  all  that  is  at  the 
disposal  of  travellers.  The  kitchen  and  offices 
adjoin  the  entrance,  and  in  the  four  or  five 
other  apartments  live  the  host  and  his  family^ 
and  there  also  are  lodged  the  travellers  who 
present  themselves.  In  the  north  of  China  the 
most  conspicuous  object  in  a  room  of  an  inn 
is  the  kang,  or  raised  brick  bed-place,  which 
generally  extends  along  the  whole  side  of  the 
chamber.  It  is  built  hollow,  so  as  to  admits 
in  cold  xyeather,  of  a  fire  of  brushwood  being 
lighted  inside.  The  caloric  thus  communicated 
quickly  heats  the  bricks  through,  and  the  wear}' 
traveller  finds  a  warm  place  in  which  to  roll 
himself  in  his  bedding.  Even  when  thus  com- 
fortably placed  he  must  be  a  hardened  sleeper 
who  can  forget  in  slumber  the  noises  which 
are  constantly  going  on  around  him.  It  is  sel- 
dom that  among  the  inhabitants  of  an  inn 
there  is  not  a  guitar  and  a  guitarist,  and  long 
into  the  night  the  melancholy  notes  of  this  in- 
strument, which  would  be  provocative  of  sleep 
were   it  not   for  the  shrill,  long  drawn-out  notes 


304  Travelling. 

which  diversify  Chinese  airs,  wail  through  the 
rooms.  When  at  last  these  cease  to  disturb, 
the  silence  which  follows  only  makes  more  au- 
dible the  quarrels  and  fights  between  the  ponies 
and  mules  which  stand  in  the  stable,  or  some- 
times in  the  open  courtyard.  When  towards 
morning  these  sounds  have  died  away  the  trav- 
eller is  fortunate  it"  he  is  not  tormented  with 
the  crowing  of  cocks,  which  not  unfrequently 
landlords,  and  those  of  their  guests  who  wish 
to  make  an  early  start,  tie  beneath  their  beds, 
and  which,  as  may  be  imagined,  keep  up  a 
shrill   chorus   on    the    approach  of  day. 

Another  means  of  travelling  remains  to  be 
noticed,  and  one  peculiar  to  China,  namely,  by 
wheelbarrow.  On  the  plains,  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  empire,  it  is  not  at  all  unusual 
to  see  one  or  two  persons  seated  on  a  wheel- 
barrow, which  is  propelled  by  a  man  or  men, 
whose  labors  are  lightened  when  going  with 
the  wind  by  a  sail  whidh  is  hoisted  on  a  mov- 
able mast.  Doctor  Williamson,  in  his  "  Journeys 
in  North  China,"  thus  describes  these  means 
of  conveyance :  —  "  Here  we  met  manj^  of  their 
extraordinary  wheelbariows  moving  along  on  dry 
ground    with   a   sail    set,  each    barrow   having   a 


Wheelbarrows  with  Sails.  306 

great     wheel     in     the     ceiiire,     finely     balanced. 
Those    we   saw  were  loaded   heavily,    and   had  a 
large    sheet    of    cloth    set    on    a   framework    in 
front;    many   of  these  sails    were    so   rigged   as 
to    be    capable    of    being    raised    or    reefed    at 
pleasure,  the  ropes  or  braces   being   attached    to 
a   hook   close    to    the    driver.       We   have   never 
seen     these    wheelbarrows    without    pity.      The 
strain    to   the   men    who   manage   them    is   enor- 
mous :    indeed,  we    have  never  witnessed  human 
beings  under   such  heavy  labor.     We  met  many 
with  fourteen  bean-cakes  on  one  barrow,  equal  to 
seven    small    donkey-loads;    and   often     saw   six 
bales    of    cotton    on    one    barrow,    though     two 
are   considered    sufficient   for   a   mule :    but    hu- 
man  labor   is   cheaper    than   animal.      In    many 
cases   there  were   two   men  to   one    barrow,  one 
dragging    and    another    pushing:    but     in     such 
cases   the   load   was   increased.'* 

Another  traveller   writing  on  the  subject,  also 

speaks   of  the   enormous   loads    carried    on  these 

* 

barrows:  —  "We    saw   a    large    wheelbarrow   so 

heavily  laden   that,  while    it   required    only    one 

man    to  guide  and   manage  it  from  behind,  two 

men  were  employed,  one  on  each  side,  to  steady 

and   force    it    along,    while    a   fourth    man   wa? 
20 


{J06  Travelling, 

engaged  ii»  driving  two  mules  and  one  ass^ 
which  were  fastened  abreast  to  the  front  part 
of  the  vehicle,  in  order  to  assist  in  its  pro- 
gress." 

At  the   present   day,   however,    there   are   not 
wanting  signs  that  before  long  the  "iron  horse" 
will  have  to  be  added   to  the   list  of  the  means 
of  travelling  in  China.     The  knowledge   of  the 
material    results   of    Western    civilization    which 
has   been  gained   of  late   years   by   the   oflQcials 
of    China,    with   the   example   set    by    Japan    of 
the   practicability'^   of  their   adoption    in   Eastern 
countries,   has    stirred    the    minds    of    some    of 
the   most   powerful    men    in    China   on   the  sub- 
ject  of  introducing  railways  and  telegraphs  into 
the    "  Flowery    Land."     The   advantages   of  rail- 
ways also,  in  a   military  sense,  will    be  a  power- 
ful   argument    for    their    adoption,    and    in    the 
physical  features   of  the    country,  few   obstacles 
will   be  found    to   their  construction.     Over   the 
vast   plains   of  Northern    China    scarcely   a    gra-^ 
dient     would    be    necessary,    and    through     the 
hilly  and  mountainous  districts  the  routes  marked 
out    by    the     existing    highways    would    easilv 
yield   to   the   engineer's   skill.     Both   from    their 
natural    aptness,   and    from    the     fact    of    their 


A    WHEELBARROW    WITH    SAIL. 


307 


Magnificent  System  of  Highivays.         309 

striking  all  the  great  centres  of  trade,  these 
highways  will,  when  the  time  comes  for  laying 
down  the  rails,  probably  direct  the  course  of 
the   lines. 

Nothing  is  more  suggestive  of  the  former 
greatness  of  the  empire,  and  of  its  present  de- 
generate condition,  than  its  magnificent  system 
of  highways,  and  the  uncared-for,  miserable 
state  in  which  they  now  are.  From  Peking,  as 
the  political  centre  of  the  "  Middle  Kingdom," 
four  great  main  roads  radiate.  One  goes  north 
to  Urga  by  way  of  Seuen-hwa  Foo ;  passing 
the  Great  Wall  at  Chang-Kea  Kow ;  another 
enters  Mongolia  through  the  Koo-pei  Kow,  and 
passes  in  a  northeasterly  direction  to  Fung-ning, 
where  it  turns  northwest  and  continues  on  to 
Dolanor;  a  third  strikes  eastward  hy  way 
of  Tung-chow,  Yung-ping  Foo,  Shan-hai-kwan, 
Kiug-chow-Foo,  Moukden  Kirin,  Ning-gu-ta,  and 
on  to  Poissiet,  a  Russian  port  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  continent ;  and  a  fourth 
whicli  trends  in  southwesterly  direction  to  Paou- 
ting  Foo,  Tai-yuen  Foo,  Tung-kwan,  the  cel- 
ebrated fortress  at  the  point  where  the  Yellow 
River  after  pursuing  a  southerl}'  course,  turns 
eastward     to     the     sea,     and     Se-ngan     Foo     in 


310  Travelling. 

Shen-se.  At  this  point  it  bifurcates,  one  branch 
turning  northwest  to  Kan-suh  and  Tibet,  and 
the  other  continuing  the  original  direction 
through  Sze-chuen  to  Siam.  At  Paou-ting  Foo 
also,  two  highways  diverge  from  the  main  road, 
one  leading  to  Nanking  and  another  to  Nan- 
chang  Foo  on  the  Po-yang  Lake,  where  travel- 
lers  embark   on  the   Kea  River   for   Canton. 

The  original  construction  of  these  roads  was 
as  masterly  as  their  design  was  magnificent. 
The  bridges  by  which  they  cross  all  but  the 
largest  rivers  were  all  well  built,  and  many  of 
them  were  handsome  structures ;  the  passage 
through  mountain-gorges  and  hilly  districts  was 
in  all  cases  ably  executed  in  spite  of  often 
great  engineering  difficulties ;  and  the  width 
of  the  roadways,  from  seventy  to  eighty  feet, 
gave  ample  room  for  the  passage  of  camels, 
carts,  sedan-chairs,  and  beasts  of  burden  which 
frequented  them.  Many  of  these  roads  are 
planted  on  each  side  with  rows  of  trees,  and 
at  every  ten  Chinese  miles  there  stands  a  sig- 
nal-tower, on  which,  in  by-gone  days,  when  evil 
threatened,  fires  where  lighted,  whicii  at  night 
gave  warning  of  danger  by  their  flames,  and 
in  the  day-time  were  made  to  emit  dense  clouds 


In  Cases  of  Emergency.  811 

of  smoke  to  serve  the  same  purpose.  At  fre- 
quent intervals  are  the  remains  of  guard-houses, 
■where  soldiers  used  to  be  stationed  for  the 
protection  of  travellers,  and  wherever  necessary 
-wells  and  troughs  are  provided  for  the  use  of 
men  and  beasts.  Inns  and  tea-houses  repeat 
themselves  constantly  along  the  lines  of  route, 
4ind  post-horses  stand  ready  prepared  in  the 
stables  of  the  frequent  post-houses  to  relieve  at 
the  instant  the  tired  steeds  of  the  official 
•couriers.  In  cases  of  emergency  these  men  are 
said  to  travel  over  two  hundred  English  miles 
a  day.  They  carry  a  few  hen's  feathers  fas- 
tened to  the  top  of  their  lanterns  as  a  signal 
of  their  commission,  and  their  despatches  are 
tied  in  a  parcel  on  their  backs.  The  speed 
-with  which  they  travel  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  mention  made  by  Captain  Gill,  of  a 
nocturnal  visit  of  one  at  a  little  village  in 
Western  China:  —  "The  clatter  of  an  imperial 
despatch  from  Peking  awoke  the  echoes  of  the 
slumbering  village  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing; a  few  dogs  barked,  a  cock  crowed,  but 
in  less  than  a  minute  the  rattle  of  the  hoofs 
was  lost  in  the  distance,  and  the  place  lapsed 
into  its  normal   silence." 


CHAPTER  XII. 


HONOBS 


rpHE  question,  What 
shall  be  done  to  the 
man  whom  the  king 
delighteth  to  honor  ? 
is  one  which  receives 
different  answers  in  al- 
most every  country  in 
the  world.  In  all,  how- 
ever, some  accession  of 
dignity,  or  insignia  of 
honor,  are  the  rewards 
awaiting  those  who  have  deserved  well  of 
their  country.  The  satisfaction  arising  from 
popular  fame  is  short-lived,  and  some  more 
lasting  evidence  is  therefore  demanded  of  the 
favor  of  the  sovereign.  In  China,  the  higiiest 
rewards  for  military  services  are  unlike  all 
other  official  honors  which  die  with  the  wearer, 
312 


Titles  of  Nobility.  813 

and  are  hereditary.  Nine  titles  of  nobility, 
viz.,  Kung^  or  duke,  Hoiv,  or  marquis,  Pih,, 
or  earl,  Tsze^  or  viscount,  Nan^  or  baron,  and 
King  ehV  Too-yii^  E^e  Too-yii  Yun  K'^-yii^ 
and  Ngan  K'e-yii^  which  may  be  considered 
equivalent  to  as  many  degrees  of  knighthood, 
are  set  apart  for  military  heroes.  With  the 
exception  of  the  last  title,  all  these  are  heredi- 
tary during  a  specified  number  of  lives,  rang- 
ing from  twenty-six  for  a  Kung,  to  one  for  a 
Yun  Ke-yii.  They  have  the  peculiarity  also, 
on  occasions,  of  not  only  descending  to  future 
generations,  but  of  ennobling  the  dead,  and 
especially  those  who  have  been  killed  in  .  battle. 
The  system  of  conferring  posthumous  hon- 
ors of  various  kinds  is  very  common,  and  is 
not  by  any  means  confined  to  the  victims  of 
war.  It  is  practised  in  the  case  of  officials 
who  lose  their  lives  at  sea  or  in  the  inland 
waters  while  travelling  on  duty,  of  virtuous 
sovereigns,  of  chaste  widows,  of  filial  sons, 
and  of  patriots.  Such  rewards  are  often  only 
titles  of  honor,  which  are  not  hereditary,  and 
which  may  be  either  conferred  directly  on  the 
meritorious  person,  or  granted  to  him  posthu- 
mously,   or   may   be    bestowed    on    his   wife,   his 


814  Honors. 

parents,  or  his  grandparents.  As  in  the  case 
of  the  liereditaiy  patents  mentioned  above,  these 
titles  are  divided  into  nine  ranks,  each  of 
which  is  subdivided  into  two  grades,  and  are 
as  follows :  —  1  a.  Kwang  luh  ta  foo  ,  b.  Yung 
luh  ta  foo;  2  a.  Tsze  ching  ta  foo^  b.  Tung 
fung  ta  foo\  3  a  Tung  e  ta  foo^  b.  Chung  e 
ta  foo ;  A.  a.  Chung  hien  ta  foo^  b.  CKaoe  ta 
foo;  5  a.  Fung  ching  ta  foo^  b.  Fung  chih  ta 
foo ;  6  a.  CKing  tih  lang,  b.  Joo  lin  lang ; 
1  a.  Wan  lin  lang,  b.  CKing' sze  lang;  8  a. 
Sew  chih  lang,  b.  Sew  chih  tso  lang  ;  9  a.  Tang 
sze  lang,  b.  Tang  sze  tso  lang.  The  wives  of 
officers  on  whom  these  titles  are  conferred  are 
styled,  respectively,  1,  Yih  p'in  foo  jin,  2. 
Urh  p'in  foo  jin,  3.  Shuh  jin,  4.  Kung  jin, 
5.  E.  jin,  6.  Ngan  jin,  7.  Joo  jin,  8.  Pa  p'in 
joo  jin,   9,   Kin  p'in  joo  jin. 

These  titles  are  highly  prized  by  those  upon 
whom  they  are  bestowed,  and  invariably  ac- 
company the  mention  of  their  nam^s  in  all 
state  papers  and  famil}'  records,  as  well  as  on 
their  funeral  cards,  ancestral  tablets,  and  tomb- 
stones. "The  patents,"  says  Mr.  Mayers,  in 
his  "Chinese  Government,"  "are  inscribed  on 
long  scrolls  of  damask  silk,  woven  in  five  colors, 


The   Yellow  Riding-Jacket.  315 

with  figures  of  the  phoenix  in  relief,  upon  which 
the  particulars  of  the  grant  are  inscribed  success- 
ively in  the  Chinese  and  Manchoo  languages." 
To  military  officers,  as  rewards  of  distinguished 
services,  are  conferred,  not  only  honorary  titles,, 
sucli  as  Tseang  keun,  "  general,"  etc.,  but  ar- 
ticles of  clothing,  among  which  the  most  cov- 
eted is  the  yellow  riding-jacket.  This  jacket  is 
supposed  to  be  worn  only  when  in  attendance 
on  the  emperor,  and  though  it  is  invariably 
called  "yellow,"  the  color,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
follows  that  of  the  banner  to  which  the  re- 
cipient belongs.  Only  two  Europeans  have  been 
granted  this  distinction,  namely.  Colonel  Gordon, 
and  M.  Giguel,  the  Commandant  of  the  Foo- 
chow   Arsenal. 

To  Colonel  Gordon  also  were  presented  by 
the  emperor  four  "suits"  of  clothes,  the  first 
of  which,  a  "  suit  of  court-clothes,"  consisted 
of  an  embroidered  robe,  a  heavenly-blue  satin 
jacket  embroidered  with  insignia  of  office,  a 
moon-colored  camlet  coat,  a  moon-colored  satin 
collar,  a  sea-dragon  court-cap,  a  purple  cap 
button,  a  jadite  holder  for  a  peacock's  feather 
on  the  cap,  a  peacock's  feather,  an  untrimmed 
court-cap,  a  purple  quartz  button,  a  white  jade- 


S16  Honors. 

holder  for  a  peacock's  feather,  a  peacock's  feather, 
a  necklace  of  golden  amber  beads,  a  girdle,  a 
sash-purse,  and  a,  pair  of  satin  boots.  The 
second,  or  variegated  suit  was  made  up  of  a 
silk  robe  embroidered  with  four-clawed  dragons, 
a  heavenly-blue  Nanking  camlet  jacket,  a  rice- 
colored  spring  camlet  robe,  a  moon-colored 
gauze  collar,  a  floss  silk  cap,  a  coral  button 
of  the  first  rank,  a  white  jade-holder  for  a 
peacock's  feather,  a  peacock's  feather,  a  peach- 
stone  necklace,  a  stone-blue  silk  girdle,  a  sash- 
purse,  and  a  pair  of  satin  boots.  The  third, 
or  "-suit  of  ordinary  clothes,"  consisted  of  a 
pale  silver  Nanking  camlet  robe,  a  heavenl}- 
blue  Nanking  camlet  jacket,  a  spring  gauze  robe 
of  the  color  of  "  lake  water,"  a  fringed  official 
summer-cap,  a  red  coral  button  of  the  first 
rank,  a  flesh-colored  holder  for  a  peacock's 
feather,  a  peacock's  feather,  a  white  jade  girdle- 
clasp,  a  stone-blue  silk  girdle,  a  small  knife,  a 
red  snuff-box,  a  purse,  a  letter-case,  a  fan-case, 
a  large  and  small  purse,  and  a  pair  of  satin 
boots.  The  fourth,  or  "  walking-suit,'"  con- 
sisted of  a  blue  Nanking  camlet  robe,  a  yellow 
Nanking  riding-jacket,  a  spring  camlet  robe  of 
the  color  of  "lake   water,'"  a  drab   felt   fighting- 


Peacock's  Feathers.  317 

coat,  a  "victorious  cap,"  a  foreign  porcelain 
button  of  the  first  rank,  a  long  crane-shaped  red 
holder  for  a  peacock's  feather,  a  peacock's 
feather,  a  set  of  double-forked  sable  tails,  a 
stone-blue  silk  girdle,  a  WAist-knife,  a  walking 
sash-purse,    and   a   pair   of  satin   boots. 

Next  to  the  yellow  jacket,  the  peacock's 
feather  is  the  imperial  reward  which  is  most 
highly  prized,  and  of  this  distinguished  decora- 
tion there  are  three  ranks.  The  highest  is  the 
San  yen  hwa-ling,  or  three-eyed  peacock's  feather, 
which  is  conferred  only  on  imperial  princes,  or 
nobles  of  the  highest  degree,  or  for  the  most 
signal  military  services.  The  second,  the 
Shwang  yen  hwa-ling^  or  "double-eyed  pea- 
cock's feather,"  is  bestowed  upon  lesser  dignita- 
ries, and  for  less  conspicuous  merit.  And  the 
third,  the  Tan  yen  hwa-ling^  or  "  single-eyed  pea- 
cock's feather,"  is  given  as  a  reward  for  good 
service,  without  regard  to  rank.  Of  late  years 
the  necessities  of  the  imperial  exchequer  have 
been  such  as  to  compel  the  government  to  sell 
rank  in  the  open  market,  and  among  other  in- 
signia of  imperial  favor  "  single-eyed  peacock's 
feathers "  have  been  freely  purchased.  One 
other  kind  of  feather,  known   as  the    Lan   ling, 


318  Honors. 

"blue  feather,"  or  more  commonly  Lao  hwa 
ling,  "  crow's  feather,"  is  reserved  for  all  officials 
under  the  sixth  rank  who  have  won  their  spurs 
on  the  battle-field,  and,  according  to  regulation, 
it  is  a  distinction  which  is  open  also  to  the 
lank  and  file  of  the  imperial  guard.  More 
Qommonly  private  soldiers  receive  as  a  reward 
for  merit  an  oblong  plate  of  thin  silver,  on 
which  is  inscribed  the  character  Shang,  "  re- 
ward." 

By  the  present  dynasty  a  Manchoo  citle  of 
distinction  has  been  imported  into  the  Chinese 
service,  and  is  now  much  coveted,  both  for  the 
honor  it  brings,  and  for  the  increased  allow- 
ances that  the  bearers  of  it  enjoy  when  on  ac- 
tive service.  Ba-t' oo-roo.  "  Brave,"  is  a  title 
which  by  imperial  order  is  added  to  the  names 
of  soldiers  who  have  performed  acts  of  gal- 
lantry in  the  field,  and,  in  cases  of  more  than 
ordinary  merit,  it  is  supplemented  by  prefixed 
epithets  such  as  ''magnanimous  '  and  "heroic." 

As  an  additional  mark  of  the  imperial  ap- 
preciation for  military  services  rendered,  it  is 
permitted  to  certain  officers  to  ride  on  horseback 
a  certain  distance  within  the  outer  gateways  of 
the  palace  when  bidden  to  an  audience,  instead 


Honorary  JPortah.  319 

of  being  obliged  to  dismount  at  the  gates  of 
the  "forbidden  city,"  as  all  officials  now  are 
who    do   not    possess    this   privilege. 

In  China,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  fully  recognized 
that  the  same  power  which  grants  honors  and 
privileges  may  at  any  time  withdraw  them, 
and  each  and  all  of  the  distinctions  men- 
tioned are  revocable  by  imperial  decree ;  nor 
is  this  power  allowed  to  remain  a  dead  letter. 
The  Peking  Gazette  frequently  contains  edicts 
stripping  offending  officials  of  their  yellow 
jackets,  their  patents  of  nobility,  and  their 
titles  Ba-foo-roo,  etc.,  or  reducing  the  number 
of  eyes  in  peacock's  feathers,  or  changing  the 
colors  of  the  buttons  worn  by  them,  either 
temporarily  or  permanently. 

The  bestowal  of  imperial  honors  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  officials  of  either  service, 
or  to  members  of  either  sex.  In  every  city  in 
the  empire  are  to  be  seen  Pai  low,  or  "hono- 
rary portals,"  stretching  across  the  streets, 
which  have  been  erected  by  imperial  order  to 
perpetuate  the  rare  virtues  of  some  filial  daugh- 
ter or  chaste  widow.  It  might  be  argued  that 
the  existence  of  these  laudatory  monuments 
points    to   the   rarity  of  the  virtues  which  they 


320  Honors. 

commemorate,  and  this  is,  to  a  certain*  extent, 
no  dbubt  true;  at  the  same  time,  the  formali- 
ties to  be  observed,  and  the  expenses  incurred 
in  obtaining  the  necessary  decrees,  are  so 
burdensome  that  doubtless  the  friends  of  many 
fit  candidates  for  the  honor  allow  them  to  waste 
their  sweetness  on  the  desert  air  of  obscurity. 
As  an  instance  of  the  merit  in  such  cases  de- 
manded, and  of  the  reward  granted,  the  fol- 
lowing edict  in  the  Peking  Gazette  of  Ma}' 
25th,  1877,  affords  a  good  example.  Le  Hung- 
chang,  the  Viceroy  of  Cliih-li,  there  reports  the 
case  of  a  Miss  Wang,  who,  from  her  earliest 
youth,  "  exhibited  a  decorous  propriety  of  con- 
duct and  a  love  of  study.  She  was  a  diligent 
reader  of  Lew  Heang's  'Lives  of  Virtuous 
Women,'  and  the  poems  of  Muh  Lan.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen  it  was  proposed  to  betroth 
her.  At  the  first  hint  of  this  reaching  her  ears, 
she  retired  to  her  room,  and  drew,  with  a 
pointed  instrument,  blood  from  her  arm,  witli 
which  she  wrote  a  sentence  declaring  her  in- 
tention to  remain  single  in  order  to  devote 
herself  to  the  care  of  her  parents.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  she  refused  in  like  manner;  and 
when,  in    1852,   the   remains   of  her   father   and 


''She   Gashed  Her  Arm:'  321 

second  brother,  who  had  perished  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Woo-ch'ang  by  the  rebels,  were  brought 
back  to  Kao-yeo,  she  exclaimed,  amid  her 
tears,  that  since  she  could  not  follow  her 
father  to  the  tomb,  her  mother  being  still  alive, 
jier  blood  should  at  least  serve  to  varnish  his 
coffin;  so  saying,  she  gashed  her  arm  with  a 
knife,  allowing  a  stream  of  blood  to  mingle 
with  the  lacquer  of  the  coffin.  She  had  reached 
the  age  of  twenty-six  when  her  father's  obse- 
quies were  completed,  and  her  mother  and  elder 
brother  were  anxious  that  she  should,  marry ; 
but  she  steadfastly  refused  to  do  so,  and  de- 
voted herself  to  attending  upon  her  mother 
with  whom  she  shortly  afterwards  removed  to 
Choh-chow,  on  her  brother's  receiviilg  an  ap- 
pointment at  Peking  as  a  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices. She  allowed  no  other  hands  but  her 
own  to  wait  upon  her  mother,  and  when,  in 
1862,  her  mother  was  attacked  with  dangerous 
illness,  she  cut  a  piece  of  flesh  from  her 
left  thigh  to  be  administered  as  a  remedy.  In 
less  than  a  year  a  fresh  attack  of  illness  super- 
vened, and  she  cut  a  piece  of  flesh  from  her 
right   thigh   on    this    occasion,    recovery    ensuing 

as  before.     On   subsequent    occasions,  when  the 
21 


322  ffonors. 

parent  was  attacked  with  slight  ailments,  she 
applied  burning  incense-stick  to  her  arms,  and 
used  the  calcined  flesh  to  mingle  with  the 
remedies  prescribed,  with  invariably  successful 
results.  After  her  mother's  death,  in  1872, 
she  refused  all  sustenance  during  a  period  of 
three  days,  and  .was  at  last  with  difficulty  per- 
suaded to  take  food.  Her  brother  shortly  af- 
terwards died,  whereupon  she  escorted  his  re- 
mains to  the  ancestral  home  at  Kao-yeo,  and 
on  returning  performed  the  same  journey  once 
more  in  attendance  on  her  mother's  coffin.  The 
devotion  and  energy  she  has  displayed  exceed 
what  might  be  expected  from  one  of  the  op- 
posite sex,  and  it  is  solicited,  in  view  of  the 
wide  repute  which  has  been  gained  by  her 
virtues  at  Choh-chow,  that  a  monument  may  be 
erected  to  her  honor  under  imperial  sanction. — 
Granted    by  rescript." 

A  similar  honor  is  frequently  conferred  on 
young  ladies  who,  their  betrothed  having  died 
before  marriage,  devote  themselves  to  a  life  of 
single  blessedness,  and  to  the  discharge  of  filial 
duties  towards  the  parents  of  their  proposed 
husbands.  Even  the  passive  virtue  of  lon- 
gevit}'    comes    within    the    far-reaching   circle   of 


Conspicuously  a   Glory. 


323 


imperial  favors.  The  Chinese,  and  especially 
Chinese  women,  are  not  long-lived,  and  when, 
therefore,  a  case  occurs  of  a  lady  living  to  an 
extraordinary  age,  the  circumstance  is  regarded, 
in  the  words  of  the  usual  edict  issued,  as 
"'conspicuously  a  glory  to  our  reign,  and  an 
auspicious  omen  for  our  people,"  and  a  tablet, 
inscribed  in  obedience  to  the  order  of  the 
emperor  by  the  Imperial  Studio  and  thei  Han- 
lin  College,  is  the  least  honor  which  is  con- 
ferred   upon   her. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


NAMES. 


LIRE    most    in- 

J  stitutioiis  in 
China,  sur- 
names have  a 
long  history. 
Thousands  of 
years  before  the 
Aryan  races 
adopted  the 
haphazard  epi- 
thets which 
served  them  for 
surnames,  the  Chinese  had  established  for  them- 
selves tribal  names,  which  are  the  true  t?ur- 
iiames.  History  tell  us  that  the  Emperor 
Hwang-te  (b.  c.  2697)  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce sing  or  surnames.  He  had,  we  are  told^ 
a    family   of    twentj'-five    sons    by    four    wives. 

324 


The  Earliest  Sing.  .  326 

To  thirteen  of  them  he  gave  his  own  tradi- 
tional name  of  Ke,  and  to  the  remaining  twelve 
he  gave  eleven  sing,  namely  K'e,  Yui,  T'dng^ 
Clan,  Jin,  Kow,  Le,  Kih,  Hwdn,  and  E.  Fol- 
lowing the  example  thus  set,  succeeding  em- 
perors conferred  names  on  meritorious  sub- 
jects, taken  either  from  their  native  places, 
countries,  or  cities,  or  chosen  on  account  of  epi- 
thets attaching  to  them,  or  of  tlieir  titles,  trades, 
dwellings,  or  personal  characteristics.  Tlie  earli- 
est sing  are  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
mother's  side,  and  for  this  reason,  in  most  of 
such,  the  hieroglyphic  for  a  woman  enters  into 
the  composition  of  the  compound  characters 
which  express   them    in    writing. 

It  is  noticeable  that,  from  the  earliest  times^ 
the  sing  were  conferred  by  the  emperor,  and 
no  Chinaman  has,  to  the  present  day,  ever  had 
a  right  either  to  adopt  a  sing  or  to  change  it, 
without  imperial  sanction.  So  fully  is  this 
recognized,  and  so  strictly  tribal  are  the  sing, 
that  an  inexorable  law  forbids  a  man  from  mar- 
rying a  woman  bearing  the  same  sing  as  him- 
self. When  this  law  was  first  instituted  is  not 
quit«  clear.  It  is  certain  that  during  the  Shang 
and    earlier    dynasties     there    existed     no    such 


326  Names. 

bar  to  intermarriage,  but  we  find  it  in  force 
during  the  Chow  Dynasty,  and  since  that 
time  it  has  been  rigidly  adhered  to.  As  the 
years  went  on,  the  list  of  sitig  rapidly  in- 
creased, until  at  the  present  da}'  there  are, 
according  to  K'ang-he's  great  encyclopaedia, 
three  thousand  and,  thirty-eight  single  sing,  and 
one  thousand  six  hundred  and  nineteen  double 
ones.  The  late  Professor  S.  Wells  Williams,  of 
Yale  College,  gives  only  one  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  and  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six   respectively. 

Legend  says  that  Hwang-te  arranged  the 
twelve  sing  which  he  conferred  on  his  sons  by 
the  notes  he  blew  from  a  jewelled  flute.  Like 
many  other  early  Chinese  legends,  however,  it 
is  probable  that  this  one  arose  from  a  misap- 
prehension of  the  original  JCu  wan  text,  and 
that  the  fact  that  the  number  of  the  musical 
notes  fixed  by  Hwang-te  agreed  with  the 
number  of  his  son's  sing  gave  currency  to 
it.  At  the  present  day,  the  surnames  in 
the  well-known  work  on  the  Pih  sing  are. 
following  this  tradition,  arranged  under  the 
twelve  musical  notes.  The  Chinese  pride  them- 
selves much  on  tha  possession  of  .surnames,  and 


A  Badge  of  Superiorit() .  327 

no  foreigner,  not  even  the  countrymen  of  the 
reigning  Maiiclioo  sovereigns,  are  allowed  to 
borrow  them,  or  even  officially  to  use  their 
own  surnames  in  China.  In  the  same  way 
the  Annamese  flaunt  their  possession  of  sing 
as  a  badge  of  superiority  over  the  Cambodi- 
ans, who  are  not  so  privileged,  and  who  are 
thus  driven  to  distinguish  each  other  by  names 
crystallizing  either  physical  or  mental  char- 
acteristics. At  the  present  day  there  yet  linger 
traces  of  the  old  tribal  associations.  "Sucli 
names  of  places  as  Le  kea  chivang  and  Chang 
kea  wan  recall  the  time  when  the  Le  family 
were  in  possession  of  the  first-named  village, 
and  the  Chang  family  owned  the  shores  of 
the  tvan  or  bay  where  the  allied  fleets  rendez- 
voused in  1860  before  the  attack  on  the  Taku 
forts.  In  every  town  and  large  village,  also, 
every  family  has  its  ancestral  hall,  in  which 
are  placed  the  tablets  of  the  deceased  heads 
of  the  various  households  which  constitute  the 
famil}',  and  where  the  great  family  re-unions, 
especially  that  known  as  the  autumnal  sacri- 
fice,   are   held. 

It   is   customary   for   the    members   of  a   fam- 
ily establishing   an   ancestral   hall,    to   subscribe 


328  Names. 

together  a  sum  for  the  purchase  of  a  piece 
of  land,  the  income  of  which  is  devoted  to 
the  maintenance  of  the  hall.  This  land,  as 
well  as  the  hall  and  its  furniture,  are  vested 
in  the  entire  family,  and  can  be  alienated  only 
by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  elders  of  all 
the  households  interested  in  them.  The  first 
annual  festival  of  any  importance  is  held  on 
one  of  the  early  days  of  the  first  month,  when 
the  representatives  of  the  various  households 
stand  in  a  circle  around  the  tablets  in  the  prin- 
cipal room,  and  with  joined  hands,  together  bow 
and  worship  before  the  tablets  of  their  ances- 
tors. After  this  and  other  ceremonies  have  been 
performed,  the  assembled  worshippers  sit  down 
to  a  feast.  From  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth 
of  the  same  month,  acts  of  worship  are  per- 
formed, and  in  the  second  month  the  vernal 
sacrifices,  consisting  of  meats,  vegetables,  and 
fruits,  are  offered  before  the  shrines  of  the 
deceased.  In  the  seventh  month  mock  money 
and  mock  clothing  are  burnt,  under  the  delu- 
sion that,  by  so  doing,  the  things  they  rep- 
resent will  pass  to  the  dead,  who  will  thus 
be  prepared  to  withstand  the  cold  of  the  ap- 
proaching    winter.      The    principal     festival    is 


''Three  Cups  of  Wine.''  329 

later  in  the  autumn,  when  the  sacrifices  offered 
and  the  ceremonies  performed  are  of  a  more 
important  and  formal  kind  than  on  other 
occasions.  Describing  a  particular  festival  of 
this  kind,  Mr.  Doolittle,  in  his  "Social  Life 
of  the  Chinese,"  says:  "A  professor  of  cere- 
monies was  present,  directing  the  worshippers, 
when  to  kneel,  bow,  and  rise  up.  The  faces 
of  these  worshippers  were  turned  towards  the^ 
tablets.  The  head  person  among  them  was  a 
lad  of  some  six  or  eight  years  old,  being  the 
eldest  son  of  the  eldest  son,  etc.,  of  the  re- 
mote male  ancestor  from  whom  all  the  Chi- 
nese, having  his  ancestral  name,  living  in  the 
city  claimed  to  have  descended.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  clan,  according  to  the  Chinese  law 
of  primogeniture.  This  lad,  instructed  by  a 
professor  of  ceremonies,  took  the  lead  in  the 
worship,  all  the  rest  kneeling  down  when  he 
knelt,  bowing  their  heads  towards  the  ground 
when  he  bowed  his  head,  and  rising  to  their 
feet  when  he  rose.  The  head  man,  at  the 
proper  time  during  the  ceremony,  while  on  his 
knees,  all  the  rest  of  the  worshippers  being 
also  on  their  knees,  received  three  cups  of 
wine,   which   he   poured   out,  one   by   one,  upon 


330  Names. 

some  straw  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  certain 
vessel.  These  cups  were  then  re-filled  and 
replaced  on  a  table  before  the  tablets, 
whence  they  were  taken  by  the  professor  of 
ceremonies.  Before  the  wine  was  poured  out, 
he  lifted  the  cups  up  reverently  in  front  of 
him,  as  though  offering  them  to  the  spirits 
supposed  to  be  in  the  tablets.  Three  bowls 
of  vegetables  were  presented  ...  in  like  man- 
ner, and  then  taken  away  and  placed  upon  a 
table.  The  professor  of  ceremonies  .  .  .  knelt 
down,  and  read,  or  rather  chanted,  a  kind  of 
sacrificial  prayer  to  the  spirits  of  the  departed 
ancestors  of  the  company  present.  They,  be- 
ing all  the  while  on  their  knees,  then  bowed 
down  their  heads  towards  the  ground  three 
times,  when  several  rolls  of  coarse  silk,  or 
something  in  imitation  of  silk,  were  burnt. 
The  great  drum  was  beaten.  All  rose  up  at 
the  command  of  the  professor,  and  left  their 
allotted  places.  The  cooked  provisions  intended 
for  the  feast  were  soon  arranged  on  tables, 
in  the  proper  .  .  .  manner  at  feasts.  The  rep- 
resentatives of  the  families  interested  in  the 
hall  took  their  seats,  and  partook  of  the  feast 
provided   in    the   presence,    as   they   believed,  of 


The  Milk  Name.  831 

their  ancestors.  All  of  them  were  males,  no 
female  being  allowed  to  be  present  or  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  festivities  or  solemnities  of  such 
occasions.  At  the  close  of  the  feasting,  each 
representative  took  home  with  him  some  of 
the  flesh  of  the  pig  which  had  been  offered 
whole  before  the  tablets."'  The  flesh  thus 
taken  home  is  highly  prized,  it  being  believed 
that  those  who  partake  of  it  are  likely  to  be- 
come   the    parents   of  sons. 

In  addition  to  the  Sing,  every  Chinaman 
possesses  one  or  more  personal  names.  In  his 
infant  days  a  designation  known  as  his  "  milk 
name  "  is  conferred  upon  him,  and  subsequently, 
on  hi!S  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty,  a  ming, 
or  cognomen,  is  given  him.  In  after-life,  more 
especially  if  he  becomes  an  author,  he  takes 
a  tsze,  or  literary  appellation,  and  it  is  by 
this  that  he  is  afterwards  best  known  in  every- 
day life  and  in  the  literary  world.  Often, 
again,  he  adds  one  or  more  haou,  pseudonyms, 
to  his  other  names,  which  not  unfrequently 
he  uses  on  the  title-page  of  his  works,  thus 
considerably  adding  to  the  difficulty  of  identi- 
fying him.  The  case  of  the  well-known  phi- 
losopher  Choo    He    affords   an    instance    of    the 


332  Names. 

number  of  uames  which  a  Chinaman  may  ac- 
cumulate. To  his  Sing^  Choc,  was  added  his 
minff.  He.  Subsequently,  he  adopted  the  tsze, 
Yuen-hvvu}^  and  Chung-hvvuy,  and  at  different 
times,  afterwards,  christened  himself  with  the 
pseudonyms  Hwuy-gau,  "  The  dark  cottage "" ; 
Hwuy-ung,  "  The  obscure  gentleman  "  ;  Ts'ang- 
chow  t'un  ung,  "The  concealed  gentleman  of 
Ts'ang-chow " ;  Yun  kuh  laou  jin,  "  The  old 
man  of  the  cloudy  valley";  and  Tsze  yang, 
from    the   name   of  his   study. 

As  a  rule,  high-sounding  or  felicitous  names 
are  chosen,  for  the  7ning  and  tsze^  and,  gen- 
erally, the  pseudonyms  adopted  by  authors 
bear  depreciatory  meanings,  or  indications  of 
their  dwellings.  For  example,  we  meet  with 
such  ming  as  "  The  fairy  guest " ;  *'  The  pacifier 
of  the  age";  "Protracted  longevity";  or  "The 
shield  of  the  empire,"  and  among  pseudonyms 
we  find  "The  dull  scholar "  ^  "The  obscure 
student  "  ;  "  The  stupid  old  man  "  ;  as  well 
as  "  The  western  river  "  ;  "  The  mountain  val- 
ley,"  and    "  The   five    mountain   peaks." 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


THE   CHINESE    YEAR. 


full 


vear. 


*ROM  time  im- 
memorial, that 
is  to  say,  from 
a  date  anterior 
to  the  arrival 
of  the  "•  black- 
haired  "  race  in 
China,  the  Chi- 
nese divided 
their  year  into 
twelve  lunar 
months,  with  an 
occasional  inter- 
calary month  to 
make  up  the  re- 
quired number 
of  days  for  the 
The   earliest   written   character  for  a 


;33;^ 


334  The   Chinese   Year. 

year  represented  a  grain  of  wheat,  which  is 
preserved  in  the  modern  form  of  the  same  char- 
acter which  is  now  pronounced  nien.  The 
months  were  in  those  early  days  called  by 
names  the  origin  of  which  has,  according  to  the 
author  of  the  earliest  Chinese  dictionary,  the  Urh 
ya^  been  lost,  and,  in  default  of  any  intelligible 
explanation,  the  lexicographer  gives  the  list 
without  attempting  to  elucidate  them.  The  first 
is  Tsow^  "  The  north  corner  "  ;  the  second  Joo. 
"  As,  like " ;  the  third  Ping,  "  To  start  in 
sleep";  the  fourth  Yu,  "I";  the  fifth  Hao, 
"  Bright "  ;  the  sixth  Tsieh,  "  Sacrificial  Table  " ; 
the  seventh  Seang,  "  To  examine,  to  assert, 
to  watch " ;  the  eighth  Chwang,  "  Stout,  Strong, 
Abundant "  ;  the  ninth  Huen,  "  Dark  "  ;  the 
tenth  Yang,  "  Bright,  "  ;  "  The  sun,"  "  The 
day " ;  the  eleventh  Koo,  "  A  crime,"  "  A 
failure";  the  twelfth  T'soo,  "Heavy  dew  or 
rain."  Though  the  source  from  whence  these 
names  were  derived  is  hidden  from  the  Chi- 
nese, the  affinity,  as  has  already  been  shown, 
which  we  now  recognize  as  existing  between 
early  Chinese  and  Accadian  gives  us  a  clue 
by  means  of  which  some  of  them  at  least 
may    be    explained.      In    accordance    with    the 


National  Rejoicing.  335 

Babylonian  custom,  also,  the  year  of  the  an- 
cient Chinese  began,  as  at  the  present  time, 
with   the    third    month   of  the    solar   year. 

The  fact  of  the  introduction  of  an  interca- 
lary month  in  about  once  every  thirty  months 
causes  a  considerable  variation  in  the  day  on 
which  tlie  first  day  of  the  year  falls.  It 
varies  between  the  middle  of  January  and  the 
last  part  of  February,  but  whenever,  it  occurs 
it  is  the  signal  for  national  rejoicing  and  in- 
dividual merry-making.  All  public  offices  are 
closed  for  the  space  of  twenty  days,  and,  in 
like  manner,  the  doors  of  warehouses  and 
shops  are  shut  in  the  faces  of  customers.  A 
day  or  two  before  the  end  of  the  old  year  a- 
thanksgiving  Service  is  performed  in  each 
household,  before  the  shrine  of  the  tutelary 
deity,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  safety  and 
comfort  enjoyed  during  the  past  year;  and, 
among  traders  of  all  kinds,  extreme  anxiety 
is  manifested  to  collect  outstanding  debts, 
and  to  provide  money  for  the  payment  of 
sums  they  may  owe.  To  be  a  defaulter  on 
New  Year's  Day  is  to  lose  credit  and  repu- 
tation, and,  rather  than  begin  a  new  year 
under   such   ill-omened   circumstances,  sliopkeep- 


336  Tlie   Chinese    Year. 

ers  often  offer  their  stocks-in-trade  at  prices 
which  not  only  leave  them  without  a  profit, 
but  which  are,  not  unfrequeutly,  less  than 
cost-price.  The  last  night  of  the  year  is  de- 
voted to  preparations  for  the  ceremonies  of  the 
morrow.  Before  daybreak  the  members  of  each 
household  offer  sacrifices,  with  many  genuflec- 
tions and  prayer,  to  Heaven  and  Earth,  and 
to  their  tutelary  gods.  After  each  service 
crackers  are  discharged  in  the  street  or  road 
with  so  universal  a  consent  that  the  morning 
breaks  perfumed  with  sulphur  and  saltpetre. 
Next  to  the  tutelary  gods  the  deceased  ances- 
tors of  the  household,  and  after  them  the 
living  elders  of  the  family,  receive  homage 
from   their   kinsfolk. 

Early  in  the  day  the  provincial  mandarins 
pay  their  respects,  when  practicable,  to  the 
governors  and  viceroys  of  their  respective  prov- 
inces ;  and,  at  the  capital,  the  male  members 
of  the  imperial  household  and  the  high  officers 
of  state  prostrate  themselves  before  the  em- 
peror, and  offer  to  him  their  congratulations 
and  good  wishes,  in  theory,  this  ceremony 
should  be  observed  by  every  official  in  the 
empire  ;     but     as    this  is    impossible,    the    man- 


Neiv  Year's  Calls.  337 

darins  of  each  cit}^  repair  to  the  emperor's 
temple,  and  there  perform  the  ceremonies  of 
devotion  before  a  throne,  made  in  exact  imi- 
tation of  the  Dragon  Throne,  on  which  is 
placed  a  tablet  bearing  the  inscription,  "  May 
the  emperor  reign  ten  thousand  years,  and  ten 
times  ten  thousand  years."  The  fact  of  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  mandarins  throughout 
the  empire  simultaneously  prostrating  themselves 
in  humble  adoration  before  thrones,  each  ten- 
anted by  ail  ascriptive  tablet  only,  is  highly 
auggestive  of  the  power  wielded  by  the  sovereign, 
and  of  the  extent  of  the  superstitious  awe 
with    which    he    is   surrounded. 

In  private  life,  after  the  morning  sacrifices 
have  been  performed,  the  men  of  the  family 
go  out  to  pay  complimentary  visits  to  their 
friends.  A  more  than  usual  cordiality  is  re- 
quired of  acquaintances  when  meeting  in  the 
streets,  and  an  invariable  law  makes  it  obli- 
gatory for  every  one  to  appear  on  New  Year's 
Day  in  his  best  attire.  On  a  day  of  such 
importance  and  ceremony  superstition  is  sure  to 
be  busy.  Astrologers  have  laid  it  down  that 
it   is   a    fortunate    time   for  making   matrimonial 

engagements,   marrying,   setting   out   on   a  jour- 
22 


338  The   Chinese   Year. 

ney,  ordering  new  clothes,  beginning  repairs, 
to  a  house,  or  laying  the  foundations  of  one, 
for  entering  into  business-contracts,  for  sow- 
ing, planting,  and  grinding,  and,  in  fact,  for 
almost  every  enterprise.  To  students  of  folk- 
lore the  Chinese  superstition  of  the  "  first 
foot "  of  the  person  first  seen  on  New  Year's 
Day  will  be  familiar.  To  meet  a  fair  man 
when  first  going  out  is  an  omen  of  good 
luck,  but  to  meet  a  women  is  only  one  de- 
gree better  than  to  meet  a  Buddhist  priest, 
who  is  regarded  as  foreboding  the  worst  pos- 
sible fortuue.  In  the  same  way,  on  New 
Year's  Night,  a  person  wishing  to  peer  into 
the  future,  places  a  sieve  on  an  empty  stove, 
and  on  the  sieve  a  basin  of  water  and  a 
looking-glass.  Having  made  these  arrangements, 
he  steals  out  and  listens  for  the  first  words 
spoken  by  passers-by,  and  gathers  from  them 
an  omen  of  good  or  evil  for  the  coming 
twelve    months. 

The  leading  idea  among  the  Chinese,  at  New 
Year's  time,  is  that  with  the  new  yea.v  a  fresh 
lease  of  life  begins.  The  account  of  all  the 
thoughts,  words,  and  deeds  of  the  past  year 
has   to   be    closed,  and   a   new  era   breaks   upon 


Boys  Shout  out.  339 

them  with  the  dawn,  in  preparation  for  which 
the)'  seek  to  bind  fortune  to  their  chariot- 
wheels  by  the  performance  of  endless  super- 
stitious observances,  and  by  calling  down  bless- 
ings on  one  another.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country,  on  the  last  day  of  the  year,  boys 
shout  out  in  the  streets,  Mai  saou,  "  I  will 
sell  my  idle  ways,"  with  the  ostensibly  laud- 
able desire  of  devoting  the  new  year  to  use- 
ful labor.  On  the  accession  of  an  emperor 
his  reign  counts  onl}^  from  the  first  day  of 
the  year  following  the  decease  of  his  prede- 
cessor, who  is  regarded  as  sitting  on  the 
throne  for  the  remaining  months  of  the  year 
in  which  he  died.  On  each  succeeding  New 
Year's  Day  the  emperor  is  re-enthroned,  amidst 
a  display  of  imperial  insignia  and  the  strains 
of  music.  In  a  pavilion  in  the  palace  he  then 
prostrates  himself  before  heaven  and  earth,  and 
afterwards,  as  mentioned  above,  receives  the 
congratulations  of  his  ministers  and  the  mem- 
bers of  his  household,  and  separately  the 
obeisances  of  the  imperial  princesses  and  the 
ladies  of  the  court.  A  state  banquet  follows, 
to  which  all  the  high  officers,  as  well  as 
the   imperial   princes,    are    invited. 


340  '  The   Chinese  Tear. 

The  evening  of  New  Year's  Day  by  no 
means  brings  to  a  close  the  festivities  of  the 
season,  which  are  prolonged  until  after  the 
fifteenth  day.  The  first  week  is  spent  in  pay- 
ing visits,  exchanging  presents,  and  featiting. 
Loose-skinned  oranges  are  common  presents  in 
the  south  of  China,  at  this  period,  from  the  fact 
of  the  native  name  for  them  having  exactly 
tlie  same  sound  as  the  word  meaning  "Good 
fortune,"  *  and  the  streets  of  cities  are 
thronged  with  servants  carrying  sweetmeats 
and  cakes  from  house  to  house.  From  su- 
periors to  inferiors  presents  of  a  mere  sub- 
stantial value  pass,  and  considerable  sums  of 
money  are  bestowed  b}'  the  wealthy  on  their 
servants  and  dependants.  Beggars  reap  a  rich 
harvest  at  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do,  and 
itinerant  musicians  levy  a  compulsory  tax  on 
their   rich    fellow-townsmen. 

Ladies  break  through  the  monotony  of  their 
lives  at  this  season  and  give  themselves  up 
to  feasting  and  merr3-making  among  themselves. 
From  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  day  they 
worship   at   the   shrine  of  the  goddess   who  pre- 

♦  The  Chinese  are  very  fond  of  this  kind  of  symbolism ;  two  of  the  commonest 
instances  of  which,  especially  on  porcelain,  are  the  use  of  the  Bat  {Fuh),  to  sij{- 
nify  "  happiness,"  and  of  the  sonorous  stone  (AT/V^),  to  emblematize  "  prosperity." 


\ 


"  Obviou8  Paint  and   Cosmetics  J"         341 

sides  over  marriage,  and  on  the  seventh  they 
go  in  large  numbers  to  the  public  gardens, 
where  they  show  themselves  off  in  their  best 
attire  and  in  the  full  disfigurement  of  obvious 
paint  and  cosmetics.  When  paying  New  Year's 
visits,  it  is  customary  for  ladies  to  carry  with 
them  to  their  friends  sticks  of  sugar-cane  which, 
however,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  seldom  pre- 
sented, the  will  being  accepted,  with  common 
consent,   for   the   deed. 

The  evening  of  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
first  month,  when  the  Feast  of  Lanterns  is 
celebrated,  is  another  ladies'  night.  For  days 
previously,  the  lantern  shops  are  crowded  with 
purchasers,  who  indulge  in  wild  fancies  in  the 
choice  of  the  lanterns  they  buy.  All  are  highly 
colored  and  are  shaped  in  every  conceivable 
mould.  From  the  ordinary  round  shape,  to  the 
most  grotesque  figures  of  men  or  animals,  the 
changes  are  rung  in  every  variety ;  and  no  less 
divergent  than  the  forms  are  the  prices  asked. 
The  poorest  is  sure  to  find  some  to  suit  his 
pocket,  while  others  covered  with  gauze  or 
silk,  and  tastefully  painted,  are  within  the 
reach  of  the  wealthy  only.  When  the  night 
arrives  the  lanterns,  which  have  previously  been 


342  The   Chinese    Year. 

hung  up,  are  lighted,  and  give  the  signal  for 
the    commencement   of   the    festivities. 

The  viands  which  have  been  placed  on 
the  family  altar  as  an  accompan^'ing  sacri- 
fice to  the  worship  of  the  tutelary  deity 
are  transferred  to  the  dining-table,  and  with 
copious  supplies  of  samahu  form  the  family 
supper.  As  night  advances  crowds,  among 
whom  are  numbers  of  ladies,  who  on  no  other 
occasion  venture  out  after  dark,  throng  the 
street  to  gaze  at  the  illumination  and,  in 
some  instances,  to  guess  the  riddles  which  are 
inscribed  on  lanterns  hung  at  the  doorways  of 
houses.  Prizes,  such  as  parcels  of  tea,  pencils, 
fans,  etc.,  are  given  to  ,the  successful  solvers 
of  the  rebusses,  but  these  have  little  to  do 
with  the  interest  which  is  shown  in  the  amuse- 
ment which,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a 
literary  exercise,  is  well  suited  to  the  national 
taste. 

With  the  opening  of  the  official  tribunals  on 
the  twentieth  of  the  month  the  festivities  may 
be  said  to  come  to  a  close,  and  the  active 
work  of  the  new  year  to  begin  in  earnest. 
Very  early  on  the  morning  of  that  day  the 
lowest  mandarins,   both  civil  and  military,  open 


The  Ko-t'ow  Repeated.  343 

their  seals  of  oflBce  in  the  presence  of  their 
subordinates.  The  yamun  is  'brilliantly  lighted 
on  the  occasion,  and  with  due  ceremony  the 
box  containing  the  seal  is  placed  on  a  table 
in  the  tribunal  surrounded  by  burning  candles 
and  incense.  The  mandarin  then  having  per- 
formed the  Ko-t'ow  *  before  it,  the  principal  clerk 
lifts  the  box  reverently  above  his  head,  and 
offers  his  congratulation  to  his  chief.  The 
seal  is  next  taken  out  of  the  box  and  placed 
on  the  table,  and  again  becomes  the  object  of 
the  Ko-t'ow  on  the  part  of  the  mandarin.  Four 
impressions  of  the  seal  are  made  on  a  piece 
of  red  paper  bearing  an  inscription  of  good 
omen,  which  is  hung  up  at  the  gate  of  the 
yamun.  As  soon  as  these  forms  have  been 
observed  the  mandarin  goes  to  the  yamun  of 
his  next  superior,  and  there  takes  part  in  a 
similar  ceremony.  With  him  again  he  goes  to 
the  next  in  rank,  and  so  on  until  officials  of  all 
grades  have  participated  as  witnesses  in  the  open- 
ing of  the  vice-regal  .seal  in  the  yamun  of  the 
provincial  Governor-general.  In  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  empire  discharges  of  cannon 
and  crackers  announce  the  opening  of  the  seals; 

*  Ceremony  of  prostration. 


344  The   Chinese   Year. 

and  as  no  business  is  entered  upon  until  the 
next  morning,  the  latter  part  of  the  day  and 
the  evening  are  devoted  to  complimentary  visits 
and   merr3-making. 

According  to  a  very  ancient  tradition,  New 
Year's  Day  is  called  the  fowl's  day,  the  sec- 
ond the  dog's  day,  the  third  the  pig's  day, 
the  fourth  the  sheep's  day,  the  fifth  the  cow's 
da}',  the  sixth  the  horse's  day,  and  the  seventh 
man's  day.  During  the  first  six  days  the  flesh 
of  all  those  animals  to  whom  the  days  are 
dedicated  are  forbidden  as  food,  and  the  con- 
sequence is  that  feasters  at  New  Year's  time 
have  mainly  to  content  themselves  with  such 
viands  as  vegetables  and  fish.  The  seventh 
day  is  one  of  great  importance,  and,  if  fine, 
it  is  said  to  presage  a  plenteous  year ;  if 
the  reverse,  scanty  harvests  and  misfortunes. 
In  all  parts  of  the  empire  it  is  celebrated 
with  honor.  Figures,  intended  for  the  gods  of 
iiappiness,  rank,  and  longevity,  cut  out  and 
dressed  in  many-colored  garments,  are  hung 
up  at  the  doors  as  omens  of  good  luck,  and, 
in  some  districts,  pictures  representing  rat& 
marrj'ing  women  are  hung  up,  curiously  to  re- 
late,   with    the   same    object.     Generally   it   is   a 


Health-yiving  Beans.  345 

day  devoted  to  feasting  and  merry-making,  and 
in  the  south,  where  the  climate  admits  of  out- 
door pleasures,  picnics  are  common  among  the 
people.  One  of  the  many  customs  peculiar  to 
the  day  is  to  put  a  new  cloth  bag  full  of  red 
beans,  in  a  well,  and  after  allowing  it  to  re- 
main there  three  days,  distribute  its  contents 
among  the  household,  the  men  eating  seven 
of  the  beans  each,  and  the  women  fourteen. 
This  is  supposed  to  secure  them  against  illness 
during   the    year. 

As  stated  above,  the  year  is  divided  into 
twelve  months,  of  twentjMiine  and  thirty  days 
each ;  and  as  these  periods  represent  with  suf- 
ficient exactness  the  lunar  month,  it  follows 
that  the  new  moon  falls  on  the  first  of  every 
month,  and  that  on  the  fifteenth  the  moon  is 
at  its  full.  The  month  is  thus  associated  with 
the  moon,  and  is  called  by  the  same  name, 
and  is  written  with  the  same  hieroglyphic.  In 
an  ancient  work,  entitled  the  San  fun^  part 
of  which  was  probably  written  in  the  twent}'- 
third  century  B.  C,  there  is  evidence  that 
among  some  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  China 
the  year  was,  as  among  the  Egyptians  and 
some    of    the    peoples    of    India,    divided    into 


346  The  Chinese   Year. 

three  periods,  known  as  the  grass-springing  pe- 
riod, the  tree-reignii)g  period,  and  the  tree-decuy- 
ing  period.  Under  the  influence  of  the  higher 
culture  of  the  Chinese,  these  divisions  disap- 
peared, and  the  twelve  months  became  sthe 
recognized  parts  of  the  year.  The  Chinese  do, 
however,  divide  the  year  by  seasons  as  well 
as  b}'  months,  and  recognize  eight  miiiu  di- 
visions and  sixteen  subsidiary  ones,  "  which  cor- 
respond to  the  da}'  on  wliich  the  sun  enters 
the  first  and  fifteenth  degree  of  a  zodiacal  sign ; 
when  an  intercahiry  month  occurs  they  are 
reckoned  on  as  in  otlier  years,  but  the  inter- 
calation is  made  so  that  only  one  term  shall 
fall  in  it.  Their  names  and  approximate  posi- 
tions  in    the    foreign    year   are   here   given:  — 

LiH  ch'uk,   commeiicemeut  of  spring. 
Yii  shut,-  rain-water. 

King   chih,   the   toipid   insects  are  excited.. 
Ch'un  fun,  the  vernal  equinox. 
TsHng    ming,   clear  brightness. 
20.    Kuh  yii,   grain  rains. 

LiH  HEA,   commenceuient  of  summer. 
Seao  mwan,  the  grain  begins  to  fill. 
Mang  chung,  the  grain   is  in  ear. 
Hea  CHE,  the  summer  solstice. 
Seao  shoo,  slight  heat. 
Ta  shoo,  great  heat. 


Feb. 

5. 

(( 

19. 

March 

5, 

>( 

20. 

April 

5. 

(( 

20. 

May 

5. 

<< 

21. 

June  6. 

<t 

21. 

July 

7. 

<< 

23. 

Air  and  Health.  34? 

A.ug.    7.  LiH  Ts'iu,   commencement  of  autumn. 

"      23.  Ch'oo    shoo,  limit  of  heat. 

Sept.    8.  Pih  loo,   white  dew. 

"23.  Ts'iu  fun,  autumn  equinox. 

Oct.     8.  Han  loo,  cold  dew. 

*'      23.  Seany  keang,   hoar-frost  descends. 

Nov.  7.  LiH  TUNG,   commencement  of  winter. 

"    22.  Seao  meh,   little  snow. 

Dec.    7.  Ta  siieh,   heavy   snow. 

"    22.  Tung  chi,   winter  solstice. 

Jan.    6.  Seao  han,   little  cold. 

"      21.  Ta  han,  severe  cold."  * 

It  is  considered  among  the  Chinese  that 
these  periods  very  accurately  mark  the  changes 
in  the  atmosphere  which  directly  affect  the  con- 
stitution. For  this  reason  it  is  customary  for 
people  who  have  both  wealth  and  time  to  de- 
vote to  such  considerations  to  fortify  them- 
selves against  the  evil  effects  of  atmospheric 
changes  by  eating  nourishing  and  invigorating 
food.  Ginseng  soup  is  largely  consumed  on 
these  occasions,  and  it  is  said  that  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Canton  the  flesh  of  black 
dogs  is  sought  after  as  possessing  eminently 
strengthening   properties. 

The  greatest  festival  of  the  year  next  to  that 
at   New   Year's   time,   occurs   at   the    first  great 

•  Professor  S.  Wells  Williams's  "  Dictionary." 


348  The  Chinese   Year. 

division  of  the  year  —  the  commencement  of 
spring.  Agriculture  has  always  held  a  high 
place  in  the  estimation  of  the  Chinese.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  taught  to  the  people  by  the 
Emperor  Shin-nung  (B.  c.  2737-2697),  who 
has  been  canonized  as  its  patron-god,  and  this 
imperial  ancestry  has  entailed  on  each  succeed- 
ing emperor  the  duty  of  leading  the  way  for 
his  subjects  in  the  agricultural  year.  In 
obedience  to  this  custom,  on  the  arrival  of 
Lih  ch'un,  the  emperor,  attended  by  his  court, 
goes  out  of  the  east  gate  of  the  capital  to  a 
temple  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  "  to  receive 
the  spring."  In  like  manner,  as  representatives 
of  their  imperial  master,  the  officials  in  every 
provincial  capital  head  processions  which,  com- 
posed of  the  leading  gentry  of  the  district  and 
accompanied  by  bands  of  music  and  gay  ban- 
ners, march  through  the  principal  streets,  and 
pass  out  by  the  east  gate  to  the  appointed 
temples.  Here  the  cla}'  and  paper  images  of 
oxen,  and,  in  some  cases,  of  men  and  ploughs, 
which  have  been  brought  in  the  procession, 
are  placed  on  the  altar,  and  sacrifices  are  of- 
fered up  to  the  god  of  spring.  This  done,  the 
images  of  the   oxen  are   beaten   with  sticks  by 


A  Lad  in  Grreen.  349 

the  officials,  and  are  then  destroyed ;  those  made 
of  paper  by  fire,  and  those  of  clay  by  be- 
ing broken  to  pieces.  The  custom  varies 
slightly  in  different  places.  In  some,  a  young 
lad  is  chosen  who  must  be  without  spot  or 
blemish,  and  who,  having  been  dressed  in 
green  clothes,  is  sent  out  into  the  countr}^ 
through  the  east  gate.  After  a  certain  inter- 
val the  official  procession  starts  in  the  same 
direction,  and  meets  the  lad,  who  is  worshipped 
as  the  god  of  spring,  and  with  whom  they  re- 
turn to  the  city  in  triumph.  A  fine  day  is 
earnestly  desired  for  the  Lih  cKun  procession, 
and  the  saying  runs  that  "if  rain  falls  on  the 
oxen  in  the  procession,  it  will  be  wet  for  a 
hundred    days." 

Connected  with  the  Lih  cKun  is  the  turn- 
ing of  the  first  sod  by  the  emperor.  On  the 
appointed  day,  attended  by  his  court  and  all 
the  high  officials  of  the  capital,  the  emperor 
again  goes  out  of  the  east  gate  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Earth,  in  the  grounds  of  which,  with 
his  own  hand,  he  ploughs  up  nine  furrows, 
while  officials  follow  at  his  heels  casting  seed 
into  the  newly  turned  earth.  As  soon  as  his 
allotted    task    is   finished,   the  imperial   princes. 


360  The   Chinese   Year. 

holding  yellow  ploughs,  go  through  the  same 
formality,  and  following  these  the  aeeompaiiyiug 
high  oflBcials  perform  the  like  duty,  but  with 
red    in   place  of  the    imperial   yellow   ploughs. 

Similar  ceremonies  are  performed  in  the 
provinces,  and  Archdeacon  Gray  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  those  witnessed  by  him  on 
one  such  occasion  at  Canton  :  — "  The  gover- 
nor-geueral,  the  governor,  the  treasurer,  the 
commissioner  of  customs,  the  literary  chan- 
cellor, and  the  criminal  judge  of  that  city  repair 
at  an  early  hour,  on  the  fifth  day  of  the 
ploughing  season  ...  to  the  temple  in 
honor  of  Shin-nung,  the  god  of  agriculture. 
This  temple  is  situated  at  an  English  mile  be- 
yond the  eastern  gates  of  the  cit\'.  Its  prin- 
cipal shrine  is  two  stories  high.  In  the  courtyard, 
enclosed  by  walls  of  brick,  there  are  three 
chambers,  in  the  first  of  which  certain  imple- 
ments of  husbandry  are  kept ;  in  the  second, 
grain  for  seed  and  offerings;  in  the  third, 
stalled  -sheep  or  swine,  intended  victims  in 
honor  of  the  god.  The  oflScials,  having  ar- 
ranged themselves  before  the  altar,  proceed  to 
perform  the  Ko-t'-i)W.  The  governor-general  then 
offers  to  the  god,  as  expiatorj-  sacrifices,  a  sheep 


A  Letter  to  an  Idol.  861 

and  a  pig.  Nine  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables 
are  also  presented  as  thank-offerings.  The 
Ko-t'-o\v  is  then  performed  once  more,  the  offi- 
cials knocking  their  heads  upon  the  earth  nine 
times.  Upon  rising  to  their  feet,  a  letter  ad- 
dressed by  them  to  the  idol  of  the  god  of 
agriculture,  is  read  aloud  in  the  hearing  of  all 
assembled,  the  reader  looking  towards  the  idol. 
Tlie  letter,  which  is  written  according  to  a 
form  prescribed  by  the  Board  of  Ceremonies, 
runs  thus:  'Upon  this  auspicious  da}'^,  we, 
the  principal  officials  of  this  city  and  province 
stand,  O  god,  before  thy  altar,  and  render  to 
thee,  as  is  just,  heartfelt  homage.  We  depend 
upon  thee,  O  god,  to  grant  speed  to  the 
plough,  and  to  give  food  sufficient  for  the 
wants  of  the  people  over  whom  we  rule.  As 
high  as  the  heaven  is  above  the  earth,  so 
great  are  thj--  virtues.  The  ploughing  season 
has  this  day  begun,  and  all  agriculturists  are 
now  prepared  to  prosecute  their  labours  witli 
diligence.  Nor  is  his  imperial  majesty,  the 
emperor,  1  hough  so  high  in  rank,  at  all  be- 
hind in  his  preparations  for  the  discharge  of  such 
important  duties.  We,  therefore,  the  officials  of 
this    city,    pray    to   thee    as   v.\     duty    bound,    to 


362  The   Chinese   Year. 

grant  us  favourable  seasons.  Grant  us,  then, 
we  fervently  beseech  thee,  five  days  of  wind, 
and  afterwards  ten  days  of  rain,  so  that  each 
stem  may  bear  two  ears  of  grain.  Accept  our 
offerings,  and  bless  us,  we  pra3^  thee.'  Wlien 
they  have  again  performed  the  Ko-t'-ow,  knock- 
ing their  heads  nine  times  upon  the  ground, 
the  officials  put  off  their  iunics,  and  proceed 
to  certain  government  lands,  which  are  adjacent 
to  the  temple,  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing 
nine  furrows  each.  Here  each  official,  having 
been  presented  with  a  whip,  is  escorted  to  a 
plough  to  which  a  buffalo  is  yoked ;  and  when 
the  word  is  given  by  a  conductor  of  cere- 
monies, the  ploughs  are  set  in  motion.  At  the 
head  of  each  buffalo,  to  direct  its  course,  a 
peasent  is  stationed,  who  is  permitted  on  this 
occasion  to  wear  a  j^ellow  jacket.  Behind  each 
of  the  illustrious  ploughmen  walk  three  or  four 
officers  of  the  civil  service,  whose  duty  it  is 
tc  sow,  at  each  step,  seeds  of  grain  in  the 
newly-made  furrows.  While  the  governor-gen- 
eral and  his  colleagues  are  engaged  in  plough- 
ing, youths  in  gay  dresses,  stationed  at  each 
side  of  the  field,  sing,  at  the  very  top  of 
their  voices,  paeans   in   praise    of  the  god  of  ag 


23 


SACRIFICIAL    PLOWING. 


353 


In  the  Family   Graveyard.  8^ 

riculture.  In  a  long  line  at  the  south  end  of 
the  field  stand  aged  husbandmen,  wearing  gay 
garments  suited  to  the  occasion ;  while  at  the 
north  end   are   a   body   of  graduates." 

At  the  period  TsHng  ming,  which,  as  stated 
above,  falls  generally  at  the  beginning  of  April, 
is  performed  the  rite  of  worshipping  at  the 
ancestral  tombs.  This  is  regarded  as  the  most 
sacred  duty,  and  he  who  would  wilfully  fail  in 
performing  it  would  be  looked  upon  as  an  out- 
cast. On  the  morning  of  the  day  in  question 
the  male  members  of  each  household  repair  to 
the  family  graveyard,  where,  having  weeded  and 
swept  the  tombs,  they  light  incense,  and  ar- 
range in  front  of  the  grave  sacrificial  offerings 
consisting  of  boiled  pork,  fish,  poultry,  cakes, 
tea  and  wine.  The  family  representative  then 
performs  the  Ko-t'-ow  in  honor  of  the  deceased, 
and  each  in  turn  follows  his  example.  Crackers 
are  then  fired  and  paper  money  burnt,  on  the 
ashes  of  which  is  poured  out  a  libation  of  wine, 
A  second  time  the  Ko-t'ow  is  performed,  and 
this  brings  to  a  close  the  ancestral  worship, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  homage  and  prayer.  'It 
is  the  universal  belief  that  the  spirits  of  an- 
cestors  watch   over   and   protect    their   descend- 


356  The   Chinese   Year. 

ants  during  life,  and  that  they  pass  backwards 
and  forwards  between  their  resting-places  in  the 
graves  and  the  dwellings  of  tlieir  representa- 
tives. It  is  obviously  important,  therefore,  that 
there  should  be  no  let  or  hindrance  to  their 
power  of  ingress  and  egress  to  and  from  the 
tombs,  and  the  first  object  of  -the  visitors  tc 
the  graves  is  to  clear  away  all  and  every  ob- 
struction which  may  have  accumulated  during 
the  preceding  twelve  months.  The  Ko-t'-ow  and 
sacrificial  offerings  satisfy  the  prevailing  idea  of 
homage  and  prayer,  and  by  their  due  observ- 
ance are  supposed  to  secure  the  protection  and 
support   of  the  dead. 

Having  reached  this  stage,  it  is  considered 
necessary,  for  the  comfort  of  the  spirits,  to 
propitiate  the  local  deity  by  the  presentation  of 
offerings  consisting  of  meat,  wine  and  paper 
money.  With  a  strange  mixture  of  superstition 
and  materialism,  they  further  follow  in  im- 
agination the  ancestral  spirits  into  Hades,  and 
picture  them  seated  at  table  enjoying  the  viands 
presented  to  them  as  sacrificial  offerings,  but 
subject  to  annoyance  from  the  numbers  of  beg- 
gars who  haunt  the  unseen  regions.  To  relieve 
.the   spirits   from    the    importunities  of  these  un- 


Funeral  Bake-MeaU.  867 

fortunates,  they  offer  to  them  sacrifices  of 
cakes,  paper  clothing,  and  paper  money.  The 
mediate  and  prospective  well-being  of  the  an- 
cestral spirits  having  thus  been  provided  for, 
the  living  worshippers  seat  themselves  on  the 
ground,  and  make  a  hearty  meal  of  the  sacri- 
ficial meats,  from  which  the  spirits  are  sup- 
posed to  have  extracted  only  the  essential  and 
immaterial   elements. 

It  is,  perhaps,  due  to  the  belief  in  the  ne- 
cessity of  not  allowing  any  obstruction  to  grow 
up  between  the  tomb  of  an  ancestor  and  the 
dwelling  of  his  representative,  coupled  with  a 
regard  for  the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  that 
the  Chinese  never  permit  burials  within  a  city 
wall.  Graveyards  are  almost  invariably  made 
in  the  open  country,  either  on  the  sides  of 
hills  or  on  plains.  The  feeling  against  confin- 
ing the  dead,  even  temporarily,  within  city 
walls,  is  so  great,  that  the  relatives  of  an  in- 
habitant of  a  city  who  dies  away  from  home 
are  not  allowed  to  bring  the  corpse  back  to 
its  former  dwelling.  As  a  rule,  funeral  proces- 
sions from  houses  in  cities  are  bidden  by  law 
to  take  the  most  direct  route  from  their  start- 
ing points  to    the    nearest   city   gates,    and    only 


368  The  Chinese   Year. 

in  the  case  of  a  meritorious  official  who  dies 
in  harness  is  permission  ever  given,  and  then 
only  by  a  special  decree  from  the  emperor, 
for  the  procession  to  make  a  progress  through 
the  principal  streets  of  the  city  where  he 
died. 

At  the  Ts'ing  ming  festival,  as  on  most  high 
days  and  holidays,  the  superstition  connected 
with  the  'willow  is  brought  prominently  for- 
ward. Bunches  of  willow  branches  are  used  for 
sweeping  the  tombs,  and  other  branches  are 
hung  at  the  eaves  of  houses  or  over  the  door- 
ways. Women  wear  sprigs  of  it  in  their  hair, 
"to  keep  their  eyes  clear  and  to  ward  of  blind- 
ness." These  customs  plainly  point  to  the  com- 
mon belief,  that  the  willow  possesses  power 
over  demons,  and  can  drive  them  off  or  raise 
them,  as  the  occasion  demands.  Thus,  at  a 
wedding,  fruits  are  handed  to  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  on  willow  plates ;  and  the  spiritualist 
mediums  make  use  of  images  carved  out  of 
willow  wood,  to  communicate  with  the  spirit 
world.  Of  the  bunch  of  willow  branches  hung 
at  the  eaves  of  houses,  a  more  rational  ex- 
planation is  sometimes  offered.  It  is  said 
that    they    are    placed    there    to    welcome    and 


Mothering  Sunday.  359 

attract  the  swallows  which  first  arrive  at  about 
that  time.  One  custom  practised  by  the  Chi- 
nese at  Ts'ing  ming  finds  a  parallel  in  the 
custom,  which  is  followed  in  couDtr}'  districts 
in  England,  at  nearly  the  same  time  of  the 
year.  While  English  girls  and  women  are  ob- 
serving the  time-honored  institution  of  "  Mother- 
ing Sunday,"*  Chinese  young  married  women 
"  return    for   rest "    to    their    mother's    roof. 

If  it  were  not  that  Buddha's  birthday  is 
commemorated  during  the  fourth  month,  no 
distinctive  festivals  would  mark  that  period. 
As  it  is,  the  rites  are  confined  to  Buddhists, 
and  more  especially  to  the  confraternities  of 
priests  and  monks.  On  the  eighth,  the  day  on 
which  it  is  said  that  Buddha  was  taken  from 
the  side  of  his  mother,  the  ceremony  of  "  bath- 
ing Buddha  "  is  performed.  A  small  image  of 
the  god  is  placed  in  a  vessel,  partly  filled 
with  water,  in  each  temple  devoted  to  his 
worship,  and  on  its  head  devotees  are  expected 
to  poui  a  handful  of  copper  cash,  and  several 
ladles  of  the  surrounding  water.  These  acts 
are    accompanied    by  adoration  and   prayer,    and 


*  This  name  is  derived  from  the  time-honored  English  custom  of  going  to  visit 
parents  on  Mid-Lent  Sunday. 


360  The   Chinese   Year. 

at  least  have  the  effect  of  adding  to  the 
revenues  of  the  temples.  On  the  same  day 
novitiates  are  admitted  to  the  priesthood,  and, 
as  a  sign  of  their  new  office,  submit  to  have 
their  heads  burnt  in  the  prescribed  manner. 
Dried  leaves  of  the  artemisia  are  rolled  up 
into  small  balls,  and  placed  on  the  head  on  the 
places  to  be  burnt.  The  balls  are  then  ignited, 
and  the  fire  burns  away  the  skin.  This  cere- 
mony having  been  performed,  the  presiding 
priest  gives  the  new  brother  his  credentials  as 
a  member  of  the  priesthood,  and  from  that 
time  forth  he  enjoys  immunity  from  punishment 
for  past  offences  against  the  law,  should  he 
have  committed  any,  and  all  the  privileges  and 
perquisites   of  his   order. 

The  fifth  month  opens  with  the  festival, 
called  by  the  Chinese,  King^  or  "  Cautious 
searching,"  which  is  known  among  foreigners 
as  the  dragon-boat  festival.  On  the  fifth  of 
that  month,  in  the  year  298  b.  c,  a  faithful 
minister,  of  the  State  of  Tsoo,  named  Kiu  Yuen, 
drowned  himself  in  the  Me-lo  river,  an  affluent 
of  the  Yang-tsze-keang,  to  avoid  witnessing  the 
disasters  which  he  saw  were  coming  upon  his 
country,  and  which  the  fatuity  of  his  sovereign. 


Dragon-Boat  Festival.  361 

Hwai  wang,  rendered  him  powerless  to  prevent. 
By  the  people,  his  death  was  regarded  as  a 
national  calamity,  especially  as  the  misfortunes 
which  he  had  predicted  befell  the  state  in 
rapid  succession.  With  pious  zeal,  the  inhabit- 
ants near  the  spot  where  he  plunged  into  the 
Me-lo  offered  sacrifices  to  his  manes,  while 
boatmen  traversed  the  river  in  search  of  his 
body.  With  that  respect  for  virtue  and  rever- 
ence for  tradition  which  characterizes  the  Chi- 
nese, the  anniversary  of  his  death  has  since 
been  strictly  observed  throughout  the  empire. 
On  the  day  in  question,  on  most  rivers,  espe- 
cially in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  boat- 
men traverse  the  rivers  backwards  and  forwards, 
as  though  in  the  act  of  searching,  in  long 
boats  which,  from  their  shape,  are  called  dragon- 
boats.  Each  boat  holds  about  twenty  rowers, 
who  regulate  the  speed  of  their  stroke  by  the 
beat  of  a  drum  placed  in  the  centre.  At  the 
bow  stands  a  man  waving  a  flag,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  be  on  the  lookout  for  the  bodj  of 
Kiu  Yuen,  and  throughout  its  length  the  boat 
is  decorated  with  flags.  No  doubt,  at  first, 
'the  progress  of  the  boats  was  merel}'  a  pro- 
cession;   but  before   long   the   presence  of  num- 


362  The   Chinese   Year. 

bers,  and  the  desire  to  excel,  which  is  instinc- 
tive everywhere,  caused  it  gradually  to  develop 
into  a  series  of  races.  At  the  present  time  a 
keen  rivalry  exists  between  the  owners  of  the 
several  boats  in  a  district,  more  especially 
when  they  are  the  propert}'^  of  different  clans, 
and  intense  interest  is  excited  in  the  results 
of  the  races.  At  first  starting  the  drum  is 
beaten  to  a  slow  and  regular  beat,  but  as  the 
men  warm  to  their  work  the  beat  becomes 
faster,  and  with  an  accompaniment  of  clashing 
gongs,  deafening  shouts,  and  waving  flags,  the 
men,  with  their  short  paddles,  send  the  boats 
along  at  a  great  rate.  Not  unfrequently  dis- 
putes, arising  out  of  the  contest,  end  in  fights, 
in  preparation  for  which  sticks  and  stones, 
as  well  as.  gongs  and  flags,  are  shipped  before 
starting. 

In  cities  remote  from  large  rivers,  all  obvi- 
ous reference  to  the  origin  of  the  observance 
has,  speaking  generally,  disappeared,  and  the 
racing  alone  remains.  At  Peking,  for  example, 
the  day  is  celebrated  by  horse  and  cart  races, 
which  are  held  in  an  open  space  in  the  outer 
city.  Throughout  the  empire  the  day  is  kept 
as   a   holiday,   and   after   midday   all   shops   and 


Summer   Weather  and  Insects.  363 

all    places    of    business    are,    as    a    rule,    closed. 

On  this  day  falls  also  the  beginning  of  sum- 
mer, when  it  is  necessary  to  take  precautions 
against  the  evil  influences  which  accompany  the 
snpposed  change  of  weather,  and  the  insects 
which  begin  to  abound  at  this  season.  Yellow 
charm  papers,  pasted  on  the  doorposts  and 
bedsteads,  and  bunches  of  garlic  and  other 
herbs  hung  at  the  front-doors  of  houses,  are 
believed  to  be  efiBcacious  in  accomplishing  the 
first  object;  and  tlie  sulphurous  smoke  from  a 
fire-cracker  composed  of  pungent  materials,  is 
said,  and  probably  with  good  reason,  to  be  a 
complete  antidote  against  the  plague  of  obnox- 
ious  insects. 

The  sixth  month,  like  the  fourth,  is  with- 
out any  marked  observance  of  interest ;  but 
with  the  beginning  of  autumn,  in  the  seventh 
month,  superstition  again  proclaims  itself  in  the 
customs  of  the  people.  On  the  seventh  day  is 
commemorated  a  curious  legend.  A  certain 
star,  called  b}'  the  Chinese  "  the  spinning 
damsel,"  and  which  is  identified  as  a  Lyra  in 
our  system,  was,  many  centuries  ago,  sent  on 
a  mission  to  earth.  There  she  fell  in  love  with 
a  cowherd,    whom    she    ultimately  married.     Be- 


364  The  Chinese   Year. 

fore  long,  however,  she  was  recalled  to  her 
place  in  the  heavens,  and  on  her  way  thither 
her  grief  at  leaving  her  husband  found  vent 
in  bitter  tears,  which  fell  upon  the  earth  as 
rain.  Unable  to  bear  his  separation  from  his 
wife,  the  cowherd  died  of  grief,  and  as  a  re- 
ward for  his  exemplary  life  was  transformed 
into  the  star,  B  Aquila,  separated  only  by  the 
milky  way  from  his  wife.  Once  a  year,  since 
that  time,  namely,  on  the  seventh  day  of  the 
seventh  month,  magpies  form  themselves  into  a 
bridge  across  the  milky  way,  over  which  the 
spinning   damsel   passes     to    the  cowherd. 

On  the  evening  of  this  day  Chinese  women 
ojBfer  sacrifices,  consisting  of  melons  and  fruits, 
to  the  spinning  damsel,  and  pray  that  she 
will  vouchsafe  to  them  skill  in  needlework. 
They  then  go  up  to  the  upper  stor}-,  if  there 
be  one,  of  the  house,  and  thread  seven  needles 
with  colored  thread,  by  the  light  of  the  moon. 
If  they  succeed,  it  is  understood  as  a  favor- 
able omen  from  the  goddess.  Water  drawn 
from  wells  on  this  evening  is  supposed  to  im- 
part clearness  and  purity  to  the  complexion, 
and  is  consequently  much  \ised  by  the  devotees 
of  the   spinning  damsel. 


Feeding  the  Hungry   Crhosts.  365 

That  there  is  intimate  communion  between 
the  dead  aud  the  living  is  a  leading  article 
in  the  Chinese  creed,  and  at  this  time  of  the 
year  a  festival  is  held,  which  is  known  as  that 
of  "Feeding  the  hungry  ghosts,"  which  has 
for  its  object  the  clothing  and  feeding  of  the 
ghosts  of  those  who  have  died  b}'  misadven- 
ture, or  have  perished  friendless  and  alone, 
and  who  are  therefore  without  those  supplies 
for  their  comfort  which  are  furnished  to  the 
more  fortunate  dead  by  surviving  relatives  at 
the  festival  of  "  visiting  the  tombs."  On  this 
occasion,  as  on  that,  paper  money  and  clothes 
are  offered  up,  and  burned  before  the  ancestral 
tablets,  while  the  members  of  each  family  go 
through  the  service  of  the  worship  of  the  dead. 
Now,  also,  substantial  viands  are  placed  on 
the  ancestral  altar,  to  be  transferred  to  the 
family  dining-table  as  soon  as  the  "  hungry 
ghosts"  have  abstracted  their  share,  in  the 
shape  of  the  immaterial  essence.  Meanwhile, 
at  the  Buddhist  and  Taouist  temples  a  succes- 
sion of  services  are  said  for  the  repose  of  the 
destitute  spirits,  and  of  an  evening  large  boats, 
brilliantly  lighted,  pass  up  and  down  the  rivers, 
from    which  rice    is    thrown    into    the  stream,  to 


366  The  Chinese   Year. 

assuage  the  hunger  of  the  ghosts.  On  board 
these  vessels  priests  chant  their  liturgies,  and 
offer  up  paper-money  and  clothes.  The  ghosts 
for  whom  this  work  of  charity  is  performed, 
are  divided  into  thirty-six  classps,  ''and  are 
represented  like  Titans  in  size,  with  -mouths 
like  needle's  eyes."  Their  condition,  like  that 
of  Pretas,  is  one  of  the  six  paths  of  transmi- 
gration, and  their  oflBce  is  that  of  gaolers  in 
hell.  No  doubt,  in  the  rites  observed  on  their 
behalf,  there  is  a  desire  to  propitiate  spirits 
which  might  be  troublesome  if  hostilely  in- 
clined, as  well  as  a  charitable  wish  to  satisfy 
the  wants  of  those  who  are  deprived  of  the 
natural  supply  of  comforts  from  dutiful  de- 
scendants; but,  in  the  main,  the  idea  is  a 
humane  one,  the  very  general  observance  of 
which  reflects  credit  on  the  national  kindli- 
ness, though  at  the  expense  of  the  national 
intelligence. 

Legend  says  that  many  centuries  ago,  on 
the  fourteenth  of  the  eighth  month,  a  certain 
doctor  was  gathering  medicinal  herbs  on  a  moun- 
tain-side, when  he  saw  a  youth  take  from  a 
many-colored  bag  a  bunch  of  herbs,  which  he 
dipped     in     dew,     and     with     which     he    then 


Heaveti's  Cauterization.  367 

anointed  his  eyes.  On  being  asked  his  reason 
for  doing  so,  he  explained  that  it  was  to  keep 
his  eyes  bright.  Having  said  this,  he  disap- 
peared, and  the  doctor  returned,  wondering  at 
what  he  had  seen  and  heard.  The  prescrip- 
tion thus  communicated  was  regarded  by  the 
people  as  being  something  more  than  human, 
and  ever  since,  on  the  anniversar}'^  of  this  day 
they  anoint  their  eyes  with  dew  applied  with 
herbb  kept  in  gayly-colored  bags.  On  the  same 
day  children's  heads  are  marked  with  red  paint, 
known  in  superstitious  language  as  "  Heaven's 
cauterization,"   as  a  preventive  against  disease. 

On  the  next  evening  falls  the  festival  of 
the  moon,  which  is  accompanied  with  a  dis- 
play of  illuminations  second  only  in  brilliancy 
to  the  Feast  of  Lanterns  in  the  first  month. 
Every  house  is  lighted  up,  and  the  inhabitants 
crowd  on  to  the  upper  verandas  and  roofs 
to  gaze  on  the  object  of  their  adoration.  At 
intervals  they  worship  before  the  ancestral 
altars,  and  feast  on  cakes,  some  made  round 
to  imitate  the  moon,  and  others  shaped  after 
all  sorts  of  fantastic  designs,  among  which 
representations  of  pagodas  find  a  prominent 
place.     Remarking   on    this  custom,  Mr.  Dennis 


368  The   Chinese   Year. 

says,  "The  moon,  it  is  well  known,  represents 
the  female  principle  in  the  Chinese  cosmogony, 
and  she  is  further  supposed  to  be  inhabited 
by  a  multitude  of  beautiful  females ;  the  cakes 
made  in  her  honor  are  therefore  veritable  of- 
ferings to  this  Queen  of  the  Heavens.  Now, 
in  a  part  of  Lancashire,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ribble,  there  exists  a  precisely  similar  custom 
of  making  cakes  in  honor  of  the  'Queen  of 
Heaven  " —  a  relic,  in  all  probability,  of  the  old 
heathen  worship,  which  was  the  common  fount 
of  the   two  customs." 

The  ninth  month  is  fruitful  in  curious  ob- 
servances. It  is  the  end  of  the  autumn,  and 
on  the  ninth  occurs  one  of  the  Tsieh,  or 
divisions  of  the  year,  upon  which  the  Chinese 
lay  such  stress.  At  court,  the  emperor,  on 
this  day,  opens  the  hunting-season,  and  goes 
to  cover  dressed  in  white,  driving  white  horses, 
and  surrounded  with  white  flags.  If  he  follow 
•the  rules  laid  down  for  his  guidance  in  the 
book  of  rites,  his  meals  at  this  time  will  con- 
sist of  a  preparation  of  hemp  and  dog's  flesh. 
By  his  subjects,  the  ninth  is  spent  on  the 
highest  bit  of  ground  or  the  loftiest  roofs 
within   their   reach,   and   is   employed   in    fly  in? 


'     Wine  and  Kites.  371 

kites  and  drinking  wine  in  which  the  petals 
of  chryt-anihemums  have  been  soaked.  The 
origin  of  this  custom  has  to  be  sought  for 
nearly  a  thousand  years  ago.  Legend  has  it 
that  a  scholar  named  Joo  Nan  was  suddenly 
warned  by  a  heavenly  messenger  to  betake 
himself  with  his  family  to  a  high  mountain, 
to  escape  a  calamity  which  was  suddenly  to 
overtake  the  district  in  which  he  lived.  On 
the  mountain-top  he  was  bidden  to  wear  a  bag 
containing  bits  of  dog-wood,  and  to  drink 
wine  in  which  the  petals  of  chrysanthemums 
had  been  soaked,  to  ward  off  all  evil  influ- 
ences. These  injunctions  he  obeyed  to  the 
letter,  and  was  rewarded  by  escaping  from  an 
overwhelming  catastrophe  which  destroyed  his 
flocks  and  herds  in  the  plains  below.  In 
memory  of  this  signal  deliverance,  people  on 
this  day  go  up  the  mountains  and  hills  in 
imitation  of  Joo  Nan.  The  kite-flying,  which 
is  now  invariably  associated  with  these  ex- 
peditions, finds  no  foundation  in  the  original 
fable,  and  was  very  likely  suggested  by  the 
combination  of  circumstances,  a  high  elevation, 
and  a  fresh  autumn  breeze.  The  sight  of  men 
of  all  ages  flying  kites  at  this  time  of  the  year 


372  The   Chinese   Tear. 

is  one  which  is  always  astonishing  to  foreign- 
ers, who  are  accustomed  to  regard  such  amuse- 
ments as  childish,  and  in  this  instance  the 
apologists  of  the  custom  cannot  even  find  a 
superstitious  origin  for  it.  The  injunction 
given  to  Joo  Nan  to  wear  a  bag  containing 
pieces  of  dog-wood  is  now  generalh-  obej^ed  by- 
Chinese  women,  who  look  on  the  charm  as  a 
sure   safeguard   against    disease. 

The  approach  of  cold  weather  ut  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  month  suggests  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  for  the  dead  suitable  cover- 
ing for  the  coming  winter,  and  the  ancestral 
tombs  again  witness  assemblies  of  survivors 
eager  to  pay  their  respects  and  to  consider 
the  comfort  of  the  departed.  On  this  occasion 
paper  clothes  are  carried  to  the  graves,  and 
burnt  before  them,  in  the  belief  that  through 
the  fire  they  reach  the  dead.  Food  is 
also,  as  at  the  spring  festival,  offered  up,  and 
as  a  matter  of  fact  is,  as  then,  eaten  by  the 
sacrificers. 

On  the  first  of  the  month,  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  farmers  set  free  their  sheep  and 
cattle.  The  origin  of  this  custom  seems  to  be 
unknown,     and    its    perpetuation     unintelligible. 


Ballet  and  Legerdemain.  B73 

The  twelfth  of  the  month  is  a  day  of  great 
festivity  in  the  palace  of  the  emperor.  For 
days  beforehand  preparations  are  made  for  a 
great  theatrical  display,  the  results  of  which 
are  that  the  court  is  kept  amused  "  from  morn 
to  dewy  eve."  First  of  all,  the  high  officials 
of  the  palace  present  themselves  before  their 
imperial  master  disguised  as  birds  and  beasts, 
and  dance  and  pose  in  a  somewhat  monoton- 
ous ballet.  This  custom  probably  owes  its  ex- 
istence to  the  historical  references  to  the  ap- 
pearance at  court  of  ambassadors  of  the  Lung 
(Dragon),  Fung  (Phoenix),  and  other  tribes  of 
aboriginal  China,  whose  names  have  been 
treated  by  historians  and  commentators  as  though 
they  actually  stood  for  the  beasts  and  birds 
they  happen  to  signify.  In  succession  to  these 
disguised  mandarins  come  conjurors,  dancers,  and 
acrobats,  whose  skill  is  wonderful,  and  who,  if 
native  records  are  to  be  trusted,  realize  to  the 
full  the  extraordinary  accounts  current  of  the 
legerdemain  and  activit}'^  of  Eastern  magicians. 
The  winter  solstice,  which  generally  falls  in 
the  eleventh  month,  is  one  of  the  most  noted 
sacrificial  periods  of  the  year.  The  night  be- 
fore the   shortest   day  the    emperor  is   supposed 


374  The   Chinese   Year. 

to  spend  in  watching  and  meditation  at  "  the 
Hall  of  Fasting,"  adjoining  the  sacrificial  altar 
known  as  the  Yuen  kiu,  or  "  Round  mound," 
outside  the  southern  gate  of  the  capital.  The 
altar,  which  is  of  marble,  is  built  in  three 
terraces,  and  is  ascended  by  twenty-seven  steps. 
The  summit  is  paved  with  marble  stones  ar- 
ranged in  nine  concentric  circles,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  round  stone  upon  which  the 
emperor  kneels:  "and  thus,"  as  is  remarked 
by  Doctor  Edkins  in  his  account  of  Peking, 
"  he  is  surrounded  first  by  the  circles  of  the 
terraces  and  their  enclosing  walls,  and  then  by 
the  circle  of  the  horizon.  He  thus  seems  to 
himself  and  his  court  to  be  in  the  centre  of 
the  universe  .  .  .  Round  him,  on  the  pave- 
ment, are  the  nine  circles  of  as  many  heavens, 
consisting  of  nine  stones,  then  eighteen,  then 
twenty-seven,  and  so  on  in  successive  multi- 
ples of  nine,  till  the  square  of  nine,  the 
favorite  number  of  Chinese  philosophy,  is 
reached  in  the  uttermost  circle  of  eighty-one 
stones." 

Very  early  on  the  solstitial  morning,  the 
emperor,  who  on  the  previous  da}'  has  examined 
the   sacrificial   offerings,  consisting  of  a  bullock. 


The  Flesh  of  Happiness.  876 

a  sheep,  a  pig,  and  other  animals,  puts  on  his 
sacrificial  robes,  and,  attended  by  his  court, 
ascends  to  the  second  terrace  of  the  altar, 
where  he  kneels  in  prayer.  This  is  a  signal 
for  setting  fire  to  the  burnt  sacrifice  in  honor 
of  Shang-te,  and  for  the  musicians  to  breathe 
appropriate  music.  The  emperor  presently  as- 
cends to  the  summit,  and  there  again  kneels, 
and  burns  incense  to  Shaug-te  and  his  ancestors. 
While  pei'forming  these  acts  of  adoration  he 
offers  up  "  bundles  of  silk,  jade-cups,  and  other 
gifts."  A  prayer  composed  for  the  occasion  is 
next  read  b}'  an  official,  to  which  the  emperor 
listens  on  his  knees,  and  emphasizes  by  bowing 
three  times  to  the  ground.  "  At  this  point," 
says  Doctor  Edkins,  "certain  officers  bring  for- 
ward what  is  called  the  '  flesh  of  happiness ' 
to  the  front  of  the  tablet  of  Shang-te,  and 
hold  it  up.  The  emperor  then  goes  to  the  spot 
for  drinking  the  'cup  of  happiness'  and  receiv- 
ing the  'flesh  of  happiness,'  and  prostrates  himself 
three  times,  receiving  the  cup  and  flesh  kneeling." 
On  his  return  to  his  palace  tlie  emperor  re- 
ceives in  audience  all  the  high  officials  of  his 
court,  who  congratulate  him  on  their  knees  on 
the  return  of  the  winter  solstice,  and  express  the 


376  The  Chinese  Tear. 

wish  which  has  greeted  the  ears  of  Oriental 
sovereigns  through  all  time,  that  he  ma}-  live 
for  ever.  In  the  provinces  a  repetition  of  the 
ceremonial  which  accompanies  the  arrival  of 
spring  takes  place.  The  mandarins,  while  it  is 
yet  dark,  assemble  at  the  local  imperial  tem- 
ples, and  there  in  solemn  silence,  except  for  the 
words  of  command  given  by  the  master  of 
ceremonies,  bow  the  knee  and  strike  their 
foreheads  on  the  ground  before  the  empty 
throne    of  the    emperor. 

By  the  people  the  day  is  observed  in  sacri- 
ficing to  their  ancestors.  Offerings  of  cooked 
meat,  fish,'  etc.,  are  presented  before  the  ances- 
tral tablets  in  each  house,  and  each  member 
of  the  household  in  order  of  seniority  bows  to 
the  ground  in  adoration  and  as  an  expression 
of  thanks  to  his  progenitors  for  the  return  of 
the  winter  solstice.  The  ofiferings  having  played 
their  part  on  the  altar,  are  then  feasted  upon 
by  the  household,  and  the  rest  of  the  day  is 
given  up  to  merry-making.  On  this  day,  also, 
numerous  minute  domestic  observances  are  fol- 
lowed ;  among  others,  the  opportunity  is  taken 
to  pickle  ducks'  eggs  for  consumption  in  the 
following   year. 


Thanksgiving  Day.  877 

The  eighth  day  of  the  last  month  in  the  year 
is  set  apart  as  a  solemn  thanksgiving  day  for 
the  mercies  received  during  the  year.  From 
time  immemorial  it  has  been  customary  for  the 
emperor  to  proceed  in  state  to  an  altar  to 
the  south  of  the  capital,  and  there  to  offer 
up  sacrifices  and  thanksgivings  for  the  mercies 
vouchsafed  to  the  empire.  An  ancient  prayer 
used  on  these  occasions  ran  thus :  "  May  the  earth 
remain  at  rest,  and  the  rivers  return  to  their 
beds.  May  the  myriad  insects  forget  to  be 
harmful,  and  trees  and  shrubs  grow  only  in 
waste  places."  Especial  honor  used  at  the  same 
time  to  be  paid  to  cats  for  destroying  field- 
mice,  and  tigers  for  keeping  down  wild  boars. 
These  passages  have  dropped  out  of  the  mod- 
ern observance,  but  with  equal  exactitude  the 
emperor  now  as  then  testifies  his  gratitude  to 
Heaven  and  earth  for  the  past,  and  beseeches 
their  protection  and  favor  for  the  time  to  come. 

Following  the  example  thus  set  them,  the 
people  throughout  the  empire  offer  sacrifices 
and  thanksgivings  to  the  gods  of  the  hearth 
and  before  the  ancestral  tablets.  The  oflferings 
having  been  arranged  on  the  family  altar,  ac- 
companied   with    burning    incense,    the    head    of 


378  The   Chinese   Year. 

the  family  prostrates  himself  before  it,  and  re- 
turns thanks  in  the  name  of  the  household, 
for  the  food,  clothing,  and  mercies  of  the  past 
year.  At  this  time  also,  in  preparation  for  the 
new  year,  rites  are  performed  for  exorcizing 
evil  influences.  Processions  march  through  the 
streets  of  the  cities  formed  of  the  townspeople, 
divided  into  companies,  and  dressed  and  painted 
in  all  kinds  of  grotesque  disguises.  The  dis- 
tortions of  form  and  feature  thus  produced, 
coupled  with  the  beatings  of  drums,  the  (Clash- 
ing of  gongs,  and  the  shouts  of  the  people, 
are  supposed  to  frighten  away  evil  demons. 
By  strict  right  the  processions  pass  through 
and  through  the  yamuns  or  official  residences 
to  clear  them  of  all  evil,  and  for  the  rest  it  is 
but  considered  necessary  to  parade  the  streets. 
In  some  places  a  paper  boat  is  carried  in  the 
procession,  which,  at  the  end  of  the  day,  is 
taken  down  to  the  river's  edge,  and  launched, 
burning,  on  the  water,  the  idea  being  that  it 
bears  away  the  malign  influences  which  have 
been  collected  in  it  while  passing,  through  the 
streets.  Having  thus  got  rid  of  the  existing 
evil  spirits,  care  is  taken  to  prevent  their  re- 
turn by  pasting  up  peach-charms  over  the  door- 


Shaving  Heads  and  boring  Ears.         379 

ways  of  the  houses.  The  peach  and  willow- 
trees  are  supposed  to  exercise  control  over 
spirits,  and  it  is  a  common  thing,  in  cases  of 
illness  which  are  believed  to  be  due  to  pos- 
session by  the  Devil,  to  have  the  bed  and 
furniture  of  the  sick-room  beaten  with  bunches 
of  peach  and  willow-twigs,  in  order  to  drive 
out  the  arch-tiend.  The  peach-charms  are  but 
pieces  of  paper  cut  into  the  shape  of  peach- 
leaves,  and  bearing  on  them  certain  characters 
designed  to  protect  the  houses  where  they  ap- 
pear. 

The  eighth  day  of  the  last  month,  being  the 
day  upon  Avhich  Buddha  "  perfected  his  doc- 
trine," is  chosen  as  a  fortunate  one  on  which 
to  shave  the  heads  of  children  and  to  bore 
the  ears  of  women.  What  connection  this  last 
act  can  have  with  the  saintship  of  Sakya 
muni  it  is  difficult  to  say,  unless  it  be  that 
the  infliction  of  pain  on  members  of  the  sex 
which  assailed  him  so  pertinaciously  with  tempt- 
ation, may  be   considered  pleasing   to   the  saint. 

On  the  twentieth  of  the  month  the  ceremony 
of  sealing  up  the  seals  of  all  the  offices  is 
performed.  Unlike  the  opposite  rite,  when  in 
the   first   month   the   seals   are    opened,  those    of 


380  The   Chinese   Year. 

the  highest  officials  are  sealed  up  first.  Before 
daylight  all  officials  inferior  to  the  highest,  in 
each  city,  go  to  the  yamun  of  their  chief, 
who,  dressed  in  full  uniform,  prostrates  him- 
self before  the  seal  which  stands  surrounded 
with  incense  on  the  official  table.  The  senior 
secretary  next  reverently  lifts  the  seal  with 
both  hands,  and,  kneeling  before  his  master, 
wishes  him  long  life  and  promotion.  The  seal 
is  then  deposited  in  a  box,  which  is  carefully 
sealed  up,  and  the  ceremony  is  brought  to  a 
close.  This  done,  the  yamun  of  the  next  high- 
est dignitary  is  visited  by  all  his  subordinates, 
who  are  called  upon  to  witness  the  same  for- 
mality, and  thus  with  an  ever-decreasing  crowd 
the  yamuns  of  every  official  are  visited,  until 
that  of  the  lowest  is  reached.  In  each  case 
before  the  seal  is  finally  locked  up  several 
impressions  are  taken,  to  be  used  in  cases  of 
emergency,  should  such  arise,  during  the  closed 
month. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month,  generally  on 
the  twenty-third,  the  festival  in  honor  of  the 
kitchen-gods  is  celebrated.  It  is  the  popular 
belief  that  these  deities  ascend  to  heaven  on 
this    day,    to    report    to    the    supreme    ruler   on 


The  Kitchen-gods'   Festival.  381 

the  conduct  of  the  households  over  which  they 
have  presided,  and  the  desire  is  equally  gen- 
eral to  propitiate  them  on  the  eve  of  their  de- 
parture. To  this  intent,  sacrificial  meats,  fruits 
and  wine  are  placed  on  a  table  in  the  kitchen, 
before  a  picture  of  the  particular  deity  to  be 
worshipped,  and  are  offered  up  to  him  with 
prayer  and  thanksgiving.  Each  member  of  the 
family  prostrates  himself  before  the  god,  while 
crackers  are  exploded  to  frighten  of  all  evil- 
disposed  spirits.  The  ceremony  over,  the  pic- 
ture which  has  done  duty  during  the  past 
year  is  torn  down  and  burnt,  together  with 
the  paper  money  presented  to  the  god,  and  the 
toy-horse  which  is  provided  to  carry  him  hea- 
venwards. 

On  the  following  evening  a  new  picture  of 
the  deity  is  pasted  up  in  the  kitchen,  and  a 
congratulatory  sacrifice  of  vegetables  is  offered 
up  to  him.  This,  it  is  thought,  will  secure  his 
good  will  and  favorable  countenance  towards 
the    household   for   the    coming   year. 

But  what  year?  How  do  the  Chinese  des- 
ignate and  compute  their  years?  Having  no 
fixed  starting-point  of  chronology,  as  among 
ourselves,  they  are    obliged   to  point    to  the    in- 


382  The  Chinese  Year. 

dividual  years  by  a  kind  of  circumlocution. 
To  eaclr  emperor  is  given  a  Neen-hao,  or  title, 
or  sometimes  two  or  three  in  succession,  for  his 
reign,  which  may  be  considered  in  the  light 
of  adopted  names,  much  as  a  pope,  on  attain- 
ing to  the  pontificate,  assumes  a  title  other 
than  his  patronymic.  These  Neen-hao  are  per- 
fectly known  by  every  one  making  an}-  pre- 
tence to  education,  and  it  is  sufficient  there- 
fore to  say  that  such  an  event  occurred  in 
such  and  such  a  year,  of  such  and  such  a 
Neen-hao^  to  enable  every  Chinaman  approxi- 
mately to  arrive  at  the  date>  which  is  referred" 
to.  For  instance,  the  year  (1882)  was  the 
seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  Kvvang-sii,  and 
is  known  to  every  Chinamen  as  Kwang-sU  ts'ih 
neen. 

Another  mode  of  computing  the  years  is  by 
reckoning  by  sexagenary  cycles.  This  system 
was,  according  to  native  historians,  introduced 
by  the  Emperor  Hwang-te  in  the  sixty-first 
year  of  his  reign  (2637  B.  c),  which  was  the 
first  ye-AY  of  the  first  cj'cle,  and  the  year 
(1881)  was  therefore  the  eighteen  tli  of  the 
seventy-sixth  cycle.  In  order  to  express  the 
years    of    the    cycle    in    writing,    the   plan    was 


Sexagenary  Cycles.  888 

adopted  of  taking  two  sets  of*  twelve  and 
ten  cliaracters  respectively,  and  combining  them 
in  succession,  by  means  of  which  process  the 
last  two  characters  of  the  two  series  are  com- 
bined to  indicate  the  last  year  of  the  cycle. 
This  will  be  made  plain  by  the  following  table: 

The  ten  characters,  or  celes-     The  twelve  characters,  or  ter- 


tial 

stems. 

restrlal  branches. 

1. 

Keah. 

6. 

Ke. 

1. 

Tsze. 

7.  Woo. 

2, 

Yueh. 

7. 

K&ng.     ■ 

2. 

Ch'ow. 

8.  Wei. 

3. 

Ping. 

8. 

Sin. 

3. 

Yin. 

9.  Shin. 

4. 

Ting. 

9. 

Jin 

4. 

Mao. 

10.  Yew. 

5. 

Woo. 

10. 

Kwei. 

5. 
6. 

Shin. 
Sze. 

11.  Suh. 

12.  Hai. 

The  first  year  of  the  cycle  would  therefore 
be  Keah  tsze^  the  second  Yueh  ck'otv,  and  so 
oh  to  the  tenth,  Kwei  yew.  But  the  eleventh 
would  be  Keah  suh,  the  twelfth  Yueh  hai, 
the  thirteenth,  Ping  tsze,  the  fourteenth  Ting 
ch'ow,  the  fifteenth  Wit  yin,  the  sixteenth  Ke 
mao,  the  seventeenth  Kang  shin,  the  eighteenth 
Sin  sze,  and  so  on  until  we  come  to  the 
sixtieth,  which  is  Kwei  hai.  These  designations 
refer  only  to  the  years  in  each  cycle,  and  in 
no  sort  of  way  point  to  which  cycle  they  be- 
long.     To    obviate    this    difficulty    recourse     is 


384  The  Chinese  Year, 

again  had  to  the  Neen-hao,  and  any  given 
year  is  fixed  b}-  its  cyclical  name  preceded 
by  the  Neen-^hao  dnrijig  which  it  occurred. 
As  stated  above  Kwang-sii  is  the  present  Neen- 
hao,  and,  1881  being  the  eighteenth  year  of 
the  cycle,  it  would  be  described  as  Kwang- 
sii  Sin-sze-neen,  or  the  Sin  sze  (eighteenth) 
year  which  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Kwang- 
sii.  Within  modern  times  it  has  once  happened 
that  an  emperor  has  reigned  over  sixty  years, 
K'ang-he,  who  sat  on  the  throne  from  1662 
to  1723  was  this  fortunate  sovereign.  He  be- 
gan his  reign  in  the  cyclical  year  Jin  yin 
(the  thirty-ninth),  and  ruled  through  the  whole 
of  the  cycle,  until,  in  1722,  the  same  year 
{Jin  yin)  recurred.  Both  these  years  would 
therefore  be,  in  the  natural  order  of  things, 
Kang-he  Jin  yin  neen.  But,  as  it  was  nec- 
essary that  some  distinction  should  be  made 
between  them  in  order  to  avoid  confusion,  the 
character  yetv,  meaning  "  repeated,"  or  "  for 
the  second  time,"  was  prefixed  to  the  cyclical 
characters,  and  1722  was  consequently  known 
as  K^ang-he  Yew  Jin  yin  neen,  the  "  Jin  yin 
year  which  occurred  for  the  second  time  during 
the    reign    of   K'ang-he." 


Long  Hours.  386 

The  first  thirty,  or  twenty-nine,  as  the  case 
may  be,  of  same  cyclical  characters  are  used 
to  denote  the  days  of  the  month,  and  the 
twelve  divisions  of  the  day  are  indicated  by 
the  twelve  "terrestrial  branches,"  The  European 
hour  is  unknown  in  China,  and  its  place  is 
taken  by  a  period  which  corresponds  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  minutes.  In  speaking  of 
these  periods,  however,  the  practice,  which  was 
originally  introduced  into  China  by  the  Mon- 
gols, is  commonly  adopted,  of  substituting  for 
the  twelve  stems  the  names  of  the  twelve 
animals  which  are  held  to  be  symbolical  of 
them.  Thus  the  first  period,  that  between 
eleven  p.  m.  and  one  A.  M.,  is  known  as  the 
Rat,  the  second  as  the  Ox,  the  third  as  the 
Tiger,  the  fourth  as  the  Hare,  the  fifth  as 
the  Dragon,  the  sixth  as  the  Serpent,  the 
seventh  as  the  Horse,  the  eighth  as  the  Sheep, 
the  ninth  as  the  Monkey,  the  tenth  as  the 
Cock,  the  eleventh  as  the  Dog,  and  the  twelfth 
as  the  Boar.  The  night  is*  divided  into  five 
watches,  each  of  two  hqurs'  duration,  beginning 
with  the  period  of  the  Dog,  seven  to  nine 
p.   M.,    and     ending     with    that    of    the     Tiger, 

three  to   five   a.  m. 
25 


CHAPTER  XV. 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


OUPERSTITIOUS  observ- 
ances are  always  found  exist- 
ing among  a  people  in  in- 
verse ratio  to  the  extent  of 
their  scientific  knowledge. 
They  are  often,  in  fact, 
based  on  crude  observation 
of  the  processes  of  nature, 
or  more  commonly  upon  ac- 
cidental coincidences.  For 
example,  the  common  super- 
stition in  England  that  it  is  unlucky  to  see 
magpies  flying  singly  in  springtime,  is  founded 
on .  the  fact  that  in  stormy  or  cold  weather 
one  bird  remains  in  the  nest  to  keep  the  eggs 
warm,  while  the  other  goes  in  search  of  food, 
and  the  omen,  therefore,  foretells  rain  and 
storms.       In    the   same   way    the    appearance    of 

.386 


Broom-tailed  Stars.  387 

sea-gulls  inland,  which  is  rightly  interpreted 
to  mean  that  there  is  rough  weather  at  sea,  is 
attributed  to  their  having  been  driven  laud- 
ways  by  the  force  of  the  wind ;  whereas  the 
true  explanation  is,  that  during  storms  fish 
leave  the  surface  of  the  water  and  go  deeper, 
and  the  gulls,  being  thus  deprived  of  their  na- 
tural food,  seek  on  shore  to  supply  its  place 
with   worms    and   grub. 

There  are,  however,  a  host  of  superstitions, 
the  results  of  accidental  coincidences,  which 
do  not  yield  to  any  explanation  from  natural 
causes.  Some  of  them  have  been  common  all 
over  the  world.  One  of  the  most  nearly  uni- 
versal of  these  is  the  belief  in  the  malign  influ- 
ences of  comets.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
even  later,  these  "broom-tailed  stars"  were  re- 
garded in  Europe  as  foretelling  war  and  disaster, 
and  especially  calamities  to  the  ruling  houses. 
Throughout  the  East  the  same  belief  prevails, 
and  in  China  it  is  firmly  held  by  all  classes 
of  the  community.  It  is  curious  to  notice,  and 
cannot  be  denied,  that  occasionally  circum- 
stances seem  to  have  justified  its  existence. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  a  belief  which  not 
unfrequently  finds    its    own    fulfilment   by   sug- 


388  Superstitions. 

gesting  to  rebellious  and  unruly  spirits  the 
idea  that  the  time  is  favorable  for  the  prose- 
cution of  seditious  designs.  No  such  explana- 
tion is,  however,  to  be  found  for  the  circum- 
stances (which  were  regarded  by  the  Chinese 
as  cause  and  effect)  of  the  appearance  of  the 
comet  of  1858,  and  the  totally  unexpected  out- 
break of  hostilities  between  China  and  the 
allied  forces  of  England  and  France  in  that 
year,  or  three  years  later,  of  tlie  appearance  of 
another  comet,  and  the  immediate  death  from 
illness  of  the  emperor,  who  up  to  that  time 
had   been  in   good   health. 

The  same  superstition  exists  with  regard  to 
the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon;  and,  on 
rare  occasions,  when  expected  eclipses  have 
either  not  taken  place,  or  have  been  invisible 
in  China,  the  circumstance  has  been  regarded 
as  a  direct  intervention  of  Heaven  in  favor  of 
the  emperor,  its  sense  of  whose  virtue  it  thus 
signalizes.  The  popular  notion  with  regard  to 
an  eclipse  is  that  some  monster  is  attacking, 
and  unless  prevented,  will  devour  the  sun 
or  moon  as  the  case  may  be.  The  danger, 
therefore,  to  the  empire  is  great,  and  the  in- 
tervention  of    everv    official   in    the    countiv   is 


A    STREET    FORTUNE-TELLER. 


Eclipses  and  Noises.  >      391 

called  for  to  save  the  threatened  luminary. 
Some  months  before  the  expected  eclipse,  the 
Board  of  Astronomers  notifies  the  exact  date 
of  its ,  appearance  to  the  officials  of  the  Board 
of  Rites,  who  in  turn  announce  its  approach 
to  the  viceroys  and  governors  of  the  provinces. 
These  transmit  the  message  to  all  their  sub- 
ordinates, so  tliat,  when  the  time  arrives,  an 
army  of  mandarins  stands  prepared  to  avert 
the  disaster.  Their  precedure  is  simple,  and  as 
neither  the  sun  nor  moon  have  ever  been  de- 
voured, it  is  regarded  as  efficacious.  At  the' 
appointed  time,  the  mandarins  assemble  at  the 
yamun  of  the  senior  official,  and  arrange  them- 
selves before  an  altar  set  up  in  the  court- 
yard, on  which  incense  is  burning.  At  a 
given  signal  they  fall  down  on  their  knees 
and  perform  the  Ko-t'ow,  after  which  the  at- 
tendants beat  drums  and  gongs,  to  frighten 
away  the  oppressive  monster,  while  priests 
move  in  a  procession  round  the  altar  chanting 
prayers  and  formulas.  To  assist  the  mandarins 
in  their  patriotic  efforts,  the  people  mount  to 
the  roofs  of  their  houses,  and  add  to  the  din 
which  issues  from  the  yamuns,  by  beating  every- 
thing capable    of    emitting    resounding   noises. 


392  Superstitions. 

The  different  phases  of  the  planets  are  watched 
with  equal  solicitude,  and  portents  are  derived 
from  every  real  or  imaginary  chance  in  their 
relative   positions   and   colors. 

In  an  astrological  sense  Mars  symbolizes  fire 
and  rules  the  summer  season.  It  is  the  author 
of  punishments,  and  is  the  producer  of  sudden 
confusion.  Saturn  represents  earth,  and,  when 
it  meets  Jupiter  in  the  same  astrological 
"house,"  it  portends  good  fortune  to  the  em- 
pire. If,  however,  Saturn,  with  the  four  other 
planets,  should  appear  white  and  round,  mourn- 
ing and  drought  are  in  store  for  the  country ; 
if  red,  disturbances  are  to  be  expected,  and 
troops  will  take  the  field ;  if  green,  floods  are 
to  be  looked  for;  if  black,  sickness  and  death 
will  spread  over  the  land ;  and  if  yellow,  a 
time  of  prosperity  is  at  hand.  Venus  repre- 
sents gold,  and  is  deemed  a  complacent  planet; 
but,  while  in  many  of  its  phases  it  foretells 
peace  and  plent}',  it  at  other  times  presages  the 
movements  of  troops,  and  the  disruption  of 
the  empire.  If  it  at  first  looms  large,  and 
afterwards  small,  the  national  forces  will  be 
weak,  and  if  contrarywise,  they  will  be  strong. 
If    it  appear    large   and    extended,   trouble  will 


Innumerable  Portents.  393 

fall  upon  princes  and  nobles,  and  military  ex- 
peditions, then  undertaken,  will  begin  fortunately 
and  end  with  disaster;  but,  if  it  should  ap- 
pear compact  and  small,  campaigns  which  be- 
gin  in   misfortune    will   end    successfully. 

Mercury  symbolizes  water,  aud  when,  seem- 
ingl}',  of  a  white  color,  it  forecasts  drought ; 
when  yellow,  the  crops  will  be  scorched  up  ; 
when  red,  soldiers  will  arise  ;  and  when  blacky 
floods  are  at  hand.  If  it  appear  large  and 
white  in  the  East,  troops  beyond  the  frontier 
will  disperse  ;  if  red,  the  middle  kingdom  will  be 
victorious  ;  in  certain  conjunctions  with  Venus, 
it  portends  great  battles  in  which  strangers 
will  be  victorious ;  and  if  it  approaches  Venus, 
several  tens  of  thousands  of  men  will  meet 
in  strife,  and  the  men  and  ministers  of  the 
ruler    will    die.  I 

Such  are  some  of  the  innumerable  portents 
which  are  based  on  the  movements  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  planets.  Not  content  with 
peering  into  the  future  lying  before  the  na- 
tion and  its  rulers,  Chinese  astrologers  busj' 
themselves  with  the  fortunes  of  individuals, 
and  the  Imperial  Board  of  Astronomers  so 
far  gives  its   sanction  to  this   inquisitorial  astro- 


394  Superstitions. 

logy  as  to  publish  annually  an  almanac,  in 
which  are  given  the  lucky  and  unlucky  days 
throughout  the  year,  and  the  kind  of  business 
which  may  be  undertaken  with  advantage  on 
those  days  which  are  described  as  kih,  or 
lucky.  For  instance,  the  first  day  of  the 
fii-st  month  is  appropriate  for  sacrificing,  be- 
ginning to  learn,  and  bathing.  The  second  is 
an  unlucky  day,  and  nothing  of  importance 
should  be  done  upon  it.  The  third,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  suitable  for  meeting  friends, 
marrying,  taking  a  concubine,  asking  names, 
cutting  out  clothes,  putting  up  pillars,  trading, 
opening  granaries,  and  burying.  The  fourth  is 
lucky  for  shaving  the  head,  sending  for  doc- 
tors, taking  medicine,  receiving  appointments, 
entering  on  official  posts,  starting  on  journeys, 
etc.  As  certain  doings  are  appropriate  to  cer- 
tain luck}'  days,  so  other  specified  undertak- 
ing should  on  no  account  be  begun  on  such 
days  which  may  not  be  otherwise  unlucky. 
The  prognostics  for  each  day  are  careful]}'  set 
out,  and  are  eagerly  studied  by  the  educated 
among  the  people.  Those  who  have  not  this 
invaluable  source  of  information  ready  at  hand 
have    recourse    to    the    professional    fortune-tell- 


Fortune-telling.  395 

ers,  of  whom  there  is  no  lack  in  every  city 
in  the  empire.  Some  of  these  mystery-men 
occupy  shops,  but  a  great  majority  of  them 
are  possessed  of  only  a  small  portable  table, 
and  the  usual  stock-in-trade  of  their  calling, 
and  with  these  they  daily  establish  themselves 
in  the  outer  courtyards  of  much-frequented 
temples,  or  by  the  sides  of  crowded  throughfares. 
Their  modes  of  procedure  are  various.  The 
most  ancient  and  approved  methods  of  divin- 
ing the  future,  and  reading  the  will  of  the 
gods,  are  by  means  of  the  Kwei,  or  Tortoise, 
the  She,  or  Millfoil,  and  the  She,  or  a  kind 
of  Mayweed.  The  questions  put  through  the 
instrumentality  of  these  media  are  as  multi- 
farious as  are  the  wants  of  man.  Whether 
the  inquirer  should  embark  in  trade  or  no, 
whether  he  will  be  able  to  catch  the  thieves  who 
have  left  him  destitute,  whether  he  should  fol- 
low the  bent  of  his  wishes  in  some  matter  or 
not,  whether  he  should  take  office,  whether  he 
should  live  in  his  father's  house,  whether  his  mat- 
rimonial project  will  turn  out  favorably  or  the 
reverse,  whether  he  will  gather  in  go6d  crops 
or  not,  whether  disease  will  be  rife,  whether 
war   be   at   hand,   whether  he   of  whom   he  has 


396  Superstitions. 

requested  an  interview  will  grant  it,  whether 
he  will  be  able  to  find  that  which  is  lost, 
whether  he  will  be  successful  in  hunting  and 
fishing,  whether  he  will  encounter  thieves  on 
the  journey  he'  is  about  to  undertake,  these 
and  a  host  of  other  questions,  when  incense 
has  been  duly  burnt,  and  pra3ers  offered  to 
the  god,  find  their  answers  in  the  attitude  of 
the  divining-tortoise.  The  direction  of  the  ani- 
mal's gaze,  the  extent  to  which  he  stretches 
his  neck,  the  attitudes  wOiich  he  assumes  with 
his  feet  and  toes,  and  other  indications  of  the 
same  kind,  serve  to  guide  the  fortune-teller  to 
sure  and  ready  answers  to  the  inquiries  put 
him. 

No  less  ancient  is  the  system  of  inquiring 
into  the  future  by  means  of  stalks  of  Milfoil. 
This  process  is  complicated  by  an  application 
of  the  lots  to  the  diagrams  of  Fuh-he,  in  con- 
nection with  which,  by  observing  the  various 
combinations  of  the  whole  and  parts  of  lines 
which  they  form  when  cast  from  the  hand,  the 
diviner  finds  as  certain  a  response  as  in  the 
attitude  of  the  tortoise.  The  Mayweed  is  used 
in  the  same  way,  but  has  especial  efficacy 
attaching   to    it   as    coming  from    the   grave   of 


Fortune-tellers'  Modes.  397 

Confucius.  The  stalks  from  the  shrubs  grow- 
ing around  the  tomb  of  the  sage  are  gathered 
and  made  up  into  parcels  of  sixty-four,  the 
number  of  Fuh-he's  diagrams,  and  are  sold  for 
divinatory   purposes. 

In  modern  times  other  and  readier  sys- 
tems have  come  into  vogue,  and  the  proba- 
bility is  that  an  itinerant  fortune-teller  would 
be  sorely  perplexed  if  called  upon  to  interpret 
the  movements  of  a  tortoise.  He  finds  it 
easier  to  dissect  written  chai'acters,  and  to  in- 
fer from  their  component  parts  the  future  of 
his  client.  Those  who  affect  this  particular 
branch  of  the  profession  require  only,  as  their 
stock-in-trade,  a  piece  of  cloth  spread  on  the 
the  ground,  on  which  they  arrange  pencil,  ink, 
and  paper,  and  a  small  box,  in  which  are 
placed  a  number  of  bits  of  folded  paper,  each 
containing  a  single  written  character.  The 
client,  after  paying  the  necessar}'  fee,  is  required 
to  draw  out  one  of  these  pieces  of  paper.  This 
the  fortune-teller  unfolds,  and  reads  the  char- 
acter contained  in  it,  which  he  proceeds  to 
resolve  into  its  component  parts.  The  char- 
acter Tih,  "to  obtain,"  is  generally  one  of 
those     which     finds     its     place     in     the    box. 


398  Superstitions. 

This,  the  fortune-teller  points  out,  is  composed 
of  "  two  men  walking,"  "  the  sun,"  and  "  an 
inch."  From  the  first  he  assures  his  customer 
that  he  will  agree  well  with  his  fellows,  and 
will  mate  with  a  congenial  wife.  Tiie  sun  is 
life  and  light  bringing;  his  lot  will  therefore 
be  to  live  to  a  bright  old  age ;  and  whereas 
the  character  for  "inch"  is  almost  identical 
with  that  meaning  "  talented,"  a  brilliant  future 
lies  before  him,  whether  he  direct  his  efforts 
to  acquiring  literary  fame,  or  to  gaining  wealth" 
by  mercantile  enterprise.  In  this  kind  of  rough 
and  ready  dissection  of  characters  considerable 
skill,  gained  by  constant  practice,  is  shown  by 
the  learned  diviner,  who  enlarges  with  much 
fluency  on  the  meaning  of  the  several  parts, 
and  on  the  interpretations  which,  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  of  his  art,  are  to  be  placed 
upon    them. 

Another  curious  way  of  giving  oracular  re- 
sponses to  inquirers  after  knowledge  of  futurity 
is  by  means  of  a  bird,  which  is  trained  to 
pick  out  at  random  two  of  sixty-four  cards 
which  are  laid  before  it.  On  each  card  is 
drawn  either  a  god,  a  beast,  a  bird,  or  a 
man,   and    on   the    reverse   is   written   a   stanza 


Birds  and  Cards.  399 

of  poetry.  When  all  the  cards  have  been 
spread  on  a  table,  the  bird  is  let  out  of  his 
cage,  and  forthwith  picks  up  two  cards,  one 
after  the  other,  and  presents  them  to  his 
master,  who,  after  studying  the  pictures  and 
the  poetry,  deduces  from  them  an  answer  to 
the   inquiry  laid  before    him. 

To  another  class  of  fortune-tellers  the  in- 
quirer's own  person  supplies  the  materials  from 
which  his  horoscope  is  cast.  Not  only  are  the 
face  and  head,  as  among  ourselves,  studied  to 
afford  answers  as  to  the  mental  capacity  and 
leading  characteristics  of  the  inquirer,  but; 
from  the  features  of  the  whole  body  are  de- 
duced symptoms  of  the  destiny  of  the  indi- 
vidual, at  well  as  the  nature  of  his  disposition.. 
Masters  of  this  art  proclaim  their  profession  ta» 
passers-by  b}-^  a  sign  bearing  representations  of 
the  human  countenance,  which  may  be  seen 
suspended  over  stalls  in  the  by-ways  of  cities, 
as  well  as  outside  shops.  Books  for  their 
guidance  are  numerous,  and  are  minute  in  their 
details.  The  following  gleanings  have  been 
gathered  from  one  of  the  best-known  native 
Avorks   on    this    curious   subject : 

The  face  of  a  man  favored  by  fortune  should 


400  Superstitions. 

be  long  and  square ;  but  for  the  man  with  a  face 
pointed  at  each  end  like  a  date-stone,  poverty 
is  in  store.  High  cheek  bones  are  a  sign  of 
a  cruel  disposition,  and  a  matron  so  distin- 
guished is  likely  to  prove  a  husband-killing 
wife.  A  broad  chin  belongs  to  a  man  born  to 
wealth,  and  a  pointed  chin  to  a  man  whose 
lot  it  is  to  be  poor.  A  man  whose  jawbone 
is  so  wide  as  to  be  seen  from  behind  the 
ears,  has  a  heart  full  of  poison.  The  possessor 
of  a  high  forehead  will  be  held  in  esteem,  and 
will  live  to  old  age ;  but  he  whose  nose  is 
long  is  a  man  devoid  of  a  fixed  purpose.  If 
you  cannot  see  the  ears  of  a  man  when  meet- 
ing him  face  to  face,  ask  who  he  is,  for  he  is  a 
somebody.  If  you  cannot  see  the  jawbones  of  a 
man  under  like  circumstances,  ask  where  he  comes 
from,  that  you  may  avoid  him.  A  large  face  and 
a  small  body  are  signs  of  happiness,  and  the  re- 
verse is  an  omen  of  evil.  He  who  has  no  ves- 
tige of  hair  on  the  bone  above  the  neck  is 
unrighteous,  and  will  be  destitute  of  relations. 
A  man  who  does  not  move  his  head  when 
walking,  nor  bend  it  when  sitting,  will  come 
to  poverty,  and  the  possessor  of  a  small  head 
and   long   hair  will  leave   no  traces  behind  him. 


hair^  Dimples  and  Eyebrows.  401 

A  man  with  a  narrow  head  and  long  hair  will 
encounter  difficulties,  and  death  from  starva- 
tion will  overtake  him  whose  hair  grows  long 
down  to  his  ears.  He  whose  hair  turns  white 
at  an  early  age  will  not  be  fortunate ;  but 
for  him  whose  hair  after  turning  white  should 
recover  its  original  color,  great  happiness  is  in 
store. 

History  asserts  that  in  antiquity  no  instance 
was  known  of  a  man  with  thick  hair  becom- 
ing prime-minister.  Women  with  ultramarine- 
colored  hair,  like  Buddha's,  will  marry  men  of 
distinction,  and  she  who  is  the  owner  of  glis- 
tening hair  and  a  round  and  sleek  face  will 
enter  the  emperor's  harem.  People  with  dim- 
ples, both  men  and  women,  will  marry  more 
than  once.  Long  hair  in  the  eyebrows  indicates 
long  life,  but  thick  and  coarse  eyebrows  mean 
poverty;  while  a  man  who  has  the  misfortune 
to  have  eyebrows  which  are  unruly  as  well 
as  coarse,  is  a  man  not  to  be  spoken  of.  The 
possessor  of  eyebrows  widely  separated  will  be 
rich  and  prosperous ;  but  if  they  be  thin  and 
yellow  in  color,  though  he  may  be  fortunate 
at  first,  misfortune   is   sure  to    overtake    him. 

The    eyes,    we    are    told,    are    to    the    body 
26 


402  Superstitions. 

what  the  sun  and  moon  are  to  the  earth. 
They  are  also  the  resting-places  of  wandering 
spirits.  Long,  deep,  and  brilliant  eyes  belong 
to  men  of  consideration.  A  woman  with  much 
white  in  her  eyes  will  probably  murder  her 
husband,  and  a  boy  so  disfigured  will  be  stupid. 
Noses  are  also  very  important  features,  and  are 
distinguished  as  cows'  noses,  monkeys'  noses, 
dogs'  noses,  hawks'  noses,  etc.  A  man  with  a 
dog's  nose  will  live  long,  and  the  marrow  of 
the  heart  of  the  man  will  be  evil  whose  nose 
is  like  a  hawk's  beak.  The  growth  of  hair 
inside  the  ear  holds  out  a  promise  of  lon- 
gevit}',  and  ears  broad  and  large  belong  to 
men   of  ability   and   wealth. 

The  mouth  is  "  the  door  of  the  heart,  and 
out  of  it  proceed  blessings  and  cursings ; " 
its  shape,  therefore,  is  an  important  indicator 
of  the  individual.  A  man  with  a  mouth 
shaped  like  a  horned  bow  will  enjoy  the  sweets 
of  office,  and  he  who  is  blessed  with  a  broad 
and  full  mouth  will  attain  to  riches  and  honor. 
The  possessor  of  an  evenly-shaped  mouth  with 
lips  which  are  neither  thick  nor  thin,  will  have 
through  life  enough  to  eat  and  drink,  but  a 
man   with  a   horse's   mouth   will   die   of  starva- 


A.  Successful  Physiognomist.  403 

tion.  The  mouse-like  mouth  is  noted  among 
those  resembling  the  mouths  of  animals,  pos- 
sessing peculiar  traits.  It  belongs,  we  are 
told,  to  an  envious  and  jealous  man,  and  is 
the  channel  for  vilifying  words  which  scorch 
like   fire. 

Such  are  some  few  of  the  points  of  feature 
particularly  observed  by  Chinese  physiogno- 
mists. The  art  is  at  the  present  day  a  very 
popular  one,  and  though  it  cannot  claim  the 
sanction  of  antiquity  which  belongs  to  the 
practice  of  divination  by  the  Tortoise  and  the 
Milfoil,  it  can  boast  of  an  ancestr}'-  which, 
to  us,  seems  far-reaching.  We  read,  for  ex- 
ample, in  history,  that  on  one  occasion,  Kaou- 
tsoo,  tlie  first  emperor  of  the  Han  Dynasty 
(b.  c.  206-25  A.  D.),  when  a  young  man,  and  be- 
fore he  had  attained  to  any  eminence,  was 
met  on  the  road  by  a  physiognomist,  who  fell 
on  his  knees  before  him  and  thus  addressed 
him  :  —  "I  see  by  the  expression  of  your  fea- 
tures that  you  are  destined  to  ascend  the 
throne,  and  I  offer  you  in  anticipation  the 
tribute  of  respect,  that  a  subject  owes  to  his 
sovereign.  I  Ijave  a  daughter,  the  fairest  and 
the    wisest    in     the    empire ;    take    her    as   your 


404  Superstitions. 

wife."  The  man's  prescience  was  justified  by 
the  event,  and  had  its  reward.  Kaou-tsoo  rap- 
idly acquired  fame,  and,  before  long,  the 
prophet's   daughter   was   proclaimed   empress.* 

Not  content,  however,  with  divining  by  the 
outward  appearance  and  by  external  signs,  the 
Chinese,  like  some  among  ourselves,  resort  to 
spiritualism,  and  in  some  cases  invite  the  in- 
voked spirit  to  reveal  the  future  by  writing 
on  a  sand-covered  table  with  a  peach-stick. 
Great  care  is  necessary  in  the  choice  of  this 
stick.  It  must  be  bent  at  the  end,  and  must 
be  cut  from  a  branch  pointing  towards  the 
East;  but  before  cutting  it  off  the  following 
magic  formula  must  be  pronounced:  "Magic 
pencil  most  efficacious,  daily  possessing  subtle 
strength,  now  I  take  thee  to  reveal  clearly  ev- 
erj'^thing,"  and  a  mystic  character  must  be  cut 
on  the  tree.  The  stick  having  been  secured,  is 
then  \  fastened  into  a  cross-piece  of  wood, 
about  six  inches  long.  At  the  time  of  the 
siance  two  tables  are  prepared,  on  one  of 
which  are  placed  sacrificial  wine,  fruit,  and 
confectionery,  and  on  the  other  fine  red  sand 
is    strewn.     A    petition     is     then     written,    ad- 

♦This  version   of   the   story   differs   from   that   found   in  Chinese  history. 


Spiritualism. 


405 


dressed  to  the  Great  Royal  Boddhisattwa,  in- 
forming him  that  the  sacrifices  are  prepared, 
and  requesting  that  one  of  the  great  spirits 
wandering   through    the    clouds   should    be    sent 


WOMEN   OK    SOUTHERX    CHINA. 


to  the  house  of  the  writer.  This  petition  is 
burnt  before  the  shrine  of  the  deity,  and  the 
name   and    address    of    the   petitioner   is   posted 


406  Superstitions. 

up    outside    the    door    for    the    information    of 
the   spirit. 

"Later  iu  the  evening,  two  or  three  of  the 
company  assembled  go  to  the  door,  buru  there 
some  gold  paper  and  make  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  bows  and  prostrations,  receiving,  as  it 
were,  the  spirit  on  entering  the  house.  Hav- 
ing conducted  him  into  the  hall,  an  arm-chair 
is  moved  to  the  table,  whilst  incense  and  can- 
dles are  lighted.  At  the  same  time  the  medium 
approaches,  the  magic  pencil  resting  on  the 
palms  of  both  hands,  but  so  that  the  end  of 
the  twig  touches  the  surface  of  the  table 
strewn  with  sand.  He  places  his  outspread 
handg  near  the  head  of  the  table,  and,  ad- 
dressi.ig  the  spirit  with  becoming  reverence, 
says,  *  Great  spirit,  if  you  have  arrived,  be 
pleased  to  write  the  character  "  arrived "  on 
this  tJible.'  Immediately  the  magic  pencil  be- 
gins to  move,  and  the  required  character  ap- 
pears legibly  written  on  the  sand,  whereon  all 
present  request  the  spirit  to  sit  on  the  large 
arm-ch&ir,  whilst  the  deit}',  which  is  supposed 
to  have  conducted  him  thither,  is  likewise  po- 
litely asked  to  sit  down  on  another  chair. 
The    whole    company   now    bow    and    prostrate 


A  Magic  Pencil  Writes.  407 

themselves  before  the  seats  of  both  spirits,  and 
some  pour  out  wine  and  burn  gold  paper. 
Then  the  medium  approaches  again  with  the 
magic  pencil  on  the  palms  of  his  hands,  whilst 
all  assembled  say  with  one  voice,  ''  Great  spirit, 
what  was  your  august  surname,  what  your 
lionorable  name ;  what  offices  were  you  in- 
vested with,  and  under  what  dynasty  did  you 
live  on  earth?'  Immediately  the  magic  pencil 
is  seen  moving,  and  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions appear  written  in  the  sand.  After  this 
every  one  of  the  assembled  may  put  a  ques- 
tion one  after  the  other,  but  each  question  is 
t )  be  written  on  a  slip  of  paper  and  burnt, 
together  with  some  gold  paper.  As  soon  as 
each  paper  is  fairly  consumed  by  the  fire,  the 
magic  pencil  writes  down  the  answer  to  it, 
generally  in  poetical  form,  and  each  sentence 
is  followed  by  the  character,  'I  have  done,' 
whereupon  the  pencil  ceases  to  move.  Then 
all  assembled  try  to  read  the  characters  aloud. 
If  they  fail  to  decipher  them,  the  pencil 
moves  again  and  writes  the  same  sentence 
more  distinctly,  until  it  is  intelligible.  As 
soon  as  one  of  the  assembly  succeeds  in  de- 
ciphering  a    sentence,   the    magic   pencil    moves 


408  Superstitions. 

again  and  writes  on  the  sand  the  two  char- 
acters, '  That's  it.'  When  a  sentence  is  fin- 
ished in  this  way,  the  sapd  on  the  table  has 
to  be  smoothed  again  with  a  bamboo  roller, 
and  whilst  this  is  being  done,  the  whole  com- 
pany address  flattering  speeches  to  the  spirit, 
praising  his  poetical  talents,  to  which  the  magic 
pencil  replies  by  writing  on  the  table  the 
characters  '  It's  ridiculous.'  If  any  one  present 
behaves  improperly,  displaying  a  want  of  rev- 
erence, the  spirit  writes  down  some  sentences 
containing  a  sharp  rebuke.  The  motions  of 
the  pencil  are  quite  extraordinary,  and  appar- 
ently not  produced  by  the  medium  on  whose 
bare  palms  its  handle  rests,  and  who  merely 
follows  the  spontaneous  movements  of  the 
magic  pencil.  In  this  way'  conversation  is 
kept  up  without  flagging  until  midnight  (when 
the  male  principle  begins  to  be  active).  Then 
the  spirit  breaks  off  the  conversation,  and,  ad- 
dressing the  whole  company,  writes  on  the  ta- 
ble, '  Gentlemen,  I  am  much  obliged  for  your 
liberal  presents,  but  now  I  must  beg  leave  to 
depart.'  To  this  all  persons  present  reply,  say- 
ing, 'Please,  great  spirit,  stop  a  little  longer,' 
but    the   spirit    jots    down,   as    if    in    a    great 


Clairvoyance.  409 

hurry,  the  two  characters,  '  Exuse  me,  I  am  off.' 
Then  all  assembled  say,  'If  there  was  any 
want  of  respect  or  attention,  great  spirit,  we 
beseech  thee,  forgive  us  this  sin.'  All  walk 
then  to  the  house-door  burning  gold  paper, 
and  there  take  leave  of  the  spirit  with  many 
bows   and   prostrations."* 

Clairvoyance,  mesmerism,  and  palmistry  are 
commonly  practised  to  discover  that  which  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  man's  ken,  and,  in  fact,  ' 
it  may  be  said,  that  there  is  no  magical  art 
which  is  not  known  to  the  grossly  supersti- 
tious  people   of  China. 

^    ♦ "  Notes  and   Queries  on  China  and  Japan," 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


FUNERAL   RITES. 


^"pHE  disposal  of  the  dead  has 
never  been  a  vexed  question 
with  the  Chinese.  From  time 
immemorial  they  have  buried  their 
dead  out  of  their  sight.  The 
grave  of  the  Emperor  Fuh-he 
(B.C.  2852-2737)  is  still  pointed 
out  in  Honan,  and  the  last  rest- 
ing-places of  his  successors  are  to 
this  day  recognized  by  tradition. 
What  rites  accompanied  funerals  in  very  prim- 
itive times  we  know  not,  but  we  have  evi- 
dence in  the  She  king  and  elsewhere  that 
under  the  Chow  Dynasty  the  practice  of  im- 
molating men  at  the  tombs  of  the  departed 
great  was  at  least  occasionally  carried  out. 
The  probability  is  that  the  Chinese  adopted 
the  custom  from  the  aboriginal  tribes ;  but  how- 

410 


Burying  Alive.  411 

ever  that  may  be,  we  read  that  at  the  funeral 
of  Duke  Ch'iug,  iii  tlie  tenth  century  b.  c, 
sixty-six  persons  were  buried  alive  in  his  tomb, 
and  even  this  number  was  exceeded  on  the 
occasion  of  the  entombment  of  his  brother, 
the  Duke  Muh,  when  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven    men    were   immolated    at   the  grave. 

The  custom  never  seems  to  have  become  a 
regular  practice,  but  to  have  been  conformed 
to  at  the  caprice  of  the  survivors.  It  is  re- 
lated of  Tsze-k'in,  a  disciple  of  Confucius,  that 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  the  widow  and 
major-domo  wished  to  bury  some  living  per- 
sons with  the  deceased  to  serve  him  in  the 
regions  below.  The  matter  being  referred  to 
Tsze-k'in,  he  proposed  that  the  widow  and 
steward  sliould  themselves  be  the  victims  of 
their  own  affectionate  zeal,  upon  which  the 
matter  was  dropped.  After  many  centuries  of 
disuse  it  was,  according  to  Doctor  S.  Wells 
Williams,  revived  by  Shun-che,  the  first  em- 
peror of  the  present  dynasty  (A.  D.  1644-1661), 
who  ordered  thirty  persons  to  be  immolated 
at  the  funeral  of  his  empress.  On  a  like  oc- 
casion in  the  career  of  his  son  and  successor, 
K'eng-he,  four  persons  offered  to   sacrifice  them- 


412  Funeral  Rites. 

selves  at  the  tomb  of  their  imperial  mistress. 
Bat  K'ang-he  forbade  it,  and  since  then  there 
has  been  no  recurrence  of  the  barbarous  prac- 
tice. 

Of  these  living  sacrifices  the  rituals  make  no 
mention  ;  but,  according  to  them,  it  was  the 
habit  among  the  ancients  to  bury  suits  of 
clothes  with  the  dead  for  their  use  in  the 
other  world,  just  as  the  American  Indian's 
horse,  canoe,  and  paddle  are  made  to  share 
his  tomb,  that  they  ma}'^  serve  him  in  the 
hunting-grounds  of  the  blessed.  An  emperor's 
trousseau  for  the  next  state  of  existence  was 
fixed  at  a  hundred  and  thirty  suits,  a  prince's 
at  a  hundred,  a  minister's  at  fifty,  and  an 
official's  at  thirty.  After  the  same  style  of 
gradation  the  mound  on  an  emperor's  tomb 
was  raised  thirty  feet  high,  and  surrounded 
by  fir-trees ;  that  of  a  prince  was  not  to  be 
more  than  fifteen  feet,  and  surrounded  by 
cypresses ;  eight  feet  were  allowed  to  a  minis- 
ter, whose  resting-place  was  guarded  by  Lwan- 
trees  (a  kind  of  malvaceous  tree)  ;  an  official 
lay  under  onlj'  half  that  height  of  earth,  and 
under  the  shadow  of  ebon3'-trees ;  while  the 
people  were  forbidden   to  raise   any   mounds  on 


Death  and  Mourning.  413 

their  graves,  and  were  allowed  onl}'  to  plant 
willow-trees   at   their   tombs. 

Even  the  very  name  of  death  —  the  great 
leveller  —  was  npt,  and  still  is  not,  common 
to  all.  Emperors  pang,  or  "  fall  as  mountains 
fall";  princes  hung,  or  "demise";  ministers 
tsuh,  or  "  come  to  an  end  "  ;  officials  puh  luh, 
''  resign  their  dignities " ;  while  the  common 
people  sze,  "  die."  When  an  emperor  "  falls " 
the  rituals  prescribed  that  the  mourners  should 
live  for  seven  days  in  huts  outside  the  cen- 
tral door  of  the  palace,  weeping,  morning  and 
night.  Courtly  funerals  are  far  too  cumbersome 
in  ceremonial  and  elaborate  in  detail  to  be  de- 
scribed here,  and  even  in  the  homes  of  the 
commoner  people  the  rites  are  so  numerous 
that  it  will  be  impossible  to  follow  the  mourn- 
ers through  all  the  observances  proper  to  the 
twenty-seven   months    of  mourning. 

Great  importance  is  attached  by  the  Chinese 
to  the  presence  of  the  whole  family  at  the 
death-bed  of  the  head  of  the  household.  His 
last  words  are  eagerly  listened  to,  and  are 
written  down  as  they  are  spoken,  and  when  the 
silver  cord  is  loosed  and  the  golden  bowl  is 
broken    a  loud  wail   of    lamentation    is    uttered 


414  Funeral  Bites. 

by  all  present.  On  the  approach  of  death  the 
sufferer  is  carried  into  the  principal  hall  where 
subsequently  the  corpse  is  washed  and  placed 
in  the  coffin.  The  water  used  for  the  wash- 
ing is  "  bought "  from  the  nearest  river.  The 
purchaser,  who'  is  the  chief  mourner,  goes  in 
procession,  supported  by  his  friends  and  accom- 
panied by  musicians  to  the  water's  edge,  whence 
he  throws  four  cash,  and  sometimes  also  a  live 
fish  into  the  stream.  The  cash  is  payment  for 
the  water  taken,  and  the  fish  is  supposed  to 
vouch  for  the  receipt  to  tlie  River  King. 
The  washing  being  over,  the  corpse  is  dressed 
in  handsome  silken  robes,  three  being  .the 
number  allowed  by  the  sumptuary  laws  to 
officials  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  rank, 
and  two  to  officers  of  a  lower  grade.  At  the 
same  time  five  small  valuables,  such  as  pearls, 
precious  stones,  bits  of  jade  or  gold,  are  placed 
in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased.  The  encoffin- 
ment  takes  place  on  the  third  day  after  death, 
in  the  presence  of  the  assembled  family ;  ithe 
women  standing  on  the  west  side  of  the  coffin 
and  the  men  on  the  east.  Great  pains  are 
taken  to  place  the  corpse  exactly  straight  in 
the   coffin,    and   this    position    is   maintained   by 


Parings  of  the  Nails.  415 

filling  in  the  empty  spaces  with  clothes,  and 
any  object  or  objects  which  may  have  been 
personally  prized  by  the  deceased.  This  is  in- 
telligible enough,  but  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand the  obligation  the  survivors  are  under 
of  placing  the  combings  of  his  hair  and  the 
parings   of  his   nails   in   the   coffin. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  two  cash  are 
put  into  the  sleeve  of  the  deceased,  and  are 
then  shaken  out,  to  test  his  satisfaction,  or 
the  reverse,  at  the  arrangements  made  for  his 
future  comfort.  If  the  cash  fall  with  the  same 
side  upwards,  it  is  taken  as  a  sign  of  approval ; 
if  not,  as  a  sign  that  something  has  been 
omitted.  The  coffin  is  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  hall,  with  the  head  facing  towards  the 
south,  which  in  all  houses  of  any  pretensions, 
is  in  the  direction  of  the  door.  On  the  right 
of  the  coffin  the  portrait  of  the  deceased 
stands,  and  by  it  his  clothes,  washing-basin, 
towels,  etc.,  are  arranged  as  though  he  were 
yet  alive.  In  contradiction,  however,  to  this 
supposition,  a  sedan-chair  is  transmitted  for  his 
use  to  the  other  world  by  the  act  of  burn- 
ing  a   paper   effigy   of  one   in    the    courtyard. 

On    the    third    day,    also,    the    mourners    put 


416  Funeral  Rites. 

on  their  mourning,  which  consists  of  coarse 
white  sackcloth,  white  shoes,  and  a  "strip  of 
sackcloth  tied  round  the  head.  The  eldest 
son  supplements  this  attire  by  carrying  a  bam- 
boo staff,  on  which  he  leans  as  though  over- 
come by  sorrow  when  mourning  for  his  father, 
and  a  t'ung  (elaococca  sinensis)  staff  when  mourn- 
ing for  his  mother,  the  bamboo  being  symboli- 
cal of  great  grief,  and  the  t'ung  of  less 
overwhelming  sorrow.  For  a  hundred  days 
men  allow  their  hair  to  grow,  and  leave  their 
finger-nails  uncut;  and  for  the  whole  period 
of  mourning  for  a  parent — that  is,  twent}-- 
seven  months,  the  sons  holding  official  appoint- 
ments resign  their  posts,  and  such  as  are 
candidates  for  examination  refrain  from  com- 
peting.* All  scenes  of  festivity  are  avoided. 
On  the  seventh  da}'  letters  announcing  the 
death  are  sent  round  to  all  relations  and 
friends,  who  at  once  proceed  to  the  house  of 
mourning,  bringing  with  them  presents  of  money, 
incense,  viands,  or  other  things  likely  to  be 
useful  on  such  an  occasion.  On  entering  the 
house  they  put  on  mourning-clothes,  and,  ap- 
proaching   the    bier,    make     obeisance    before    it, 

*  This  is  true  of  civil  officers  only. 


Wailing  and  Stamping.  417 

at  the  same  time  presenting  incense.  As  at  each 
and  all  the  innumerable  ceremonies,  the  family- 
keep  up  an  accompaniment  of  wailing  and 
stamping  with  the  feet  while  the  visitors  pay 
their   respects. 

Every  morning,  fresh  water  is  poured  into 
the  basin  placed  by  the  coffin,  and  before  be- 
ginning each  meal  rice  and  other  viands  are 
put  within  reach  of  the  bier.  On  the  same 
table  also  are  placed  smaller  quantities  of  the 
same  food  to  propitiate  the  "  little  devil "  who 
is  supposed  to  serve  the  dead  man  in  the 
land   of  spirits.  * 

As  the  rites  demand  that  the  coffin  should 
remain  in  the  hall  for  forty-nine  days  (it  is 
oftener  kept  very  much  longer  above  ground) 
it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  made  both 
substantial  and  air-tight.  The  planks,  which  are 
cut  from  the  hardest  and  most  endurable  trees, 
are  from  four  to  five  inches  thick,  and  are 
not  only  strongly  and  accurately  mortised  to- 
gether and  caulked  on  the  outside,  but  are 
cemented  over  on  the  inside.  The  coffins  of 
men  of  high  rank  are  covered  with  coatings 
of  red  lacquer,  while  black  lacquer  is  pre- 
scribed for  mandarins  of  the  low^er  grades,  and 
27 


418  Funeral  Rites. 

to    the   people,   lacquer   of   any  kind   is  forbid* 
den. 

The  notions  that  Chinamen  entertain  con- 
cerning the  future  life,  rob  death  of  lialf  its 
terrors,  and  lead  them  to  regard  their  funeral 
ceremonies,  and  the  due  performance  of  the 
proper  rites  by  their  descendants,  as  the  chief 
factors  in  their  future  well-being.  Among  other 
things,  the  importance  of  securing  a  coffin  ac- 
cording to  the  approved  fashion,  is  duly  rec- 
ognized, and  as  men  approach  their  three- 
score years  and  ten  this  consideration  not  un- 
frequently  impels  them  to  buy  their  own 
coffins,  which  they  keep  carefully  by  them 
until  their  time  comes.*  The  present  of  a 
coffin  is  considered  a  dutiful  attention  from  a. 
son  to  an  aged  father,  and  in  cases  where  it 
is  inconvenient,  from  want  of  room,  to  keep 
it  in  the  house,  a  resting-place  is  willingly 
given   it   in   the  neighboring   temple. 

The  next  e\'ent  of  importance  is  the  choice 
of  a  site  for  the  grave.  This  has  to  be  de- 
termined by  a  professor  of  the  •'  Fung-shuy " 
superstition,  who,  compass  in  hand,  explores 
the    desired   district    to  find    a   spot  which  com- 

*  Some  eccentric  men  have  been  known  to  sleep  in  them. 


The  SouVb  Movements.  419 

bines  all  the  qualities  necessary  for  the  quiet 
repose  of  the  dead.  This  should  be  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  supposed  magnetic  currents 
which  are  known  as  the  "azure  dragon"  and 
the  "  white  tiger,"  whose  presence  is  made 
known  by  the  configuration  of  the  ground.  It 
must  be  perfectly  dry,  and  be  free  from  white 
ants  and  all  such  disturbing  influences  arising 
from  conflicting  heavenly  or  terrestrial  elements 
as  may  interfere  with  the  soul's  unrestricted 
egress  and  ingress.  When  such  a  favored  spot 
has  been  discovered,  a  Taouist  priest  is  called 
in  to  determine  a  lucky  day  for  the  burial. 
This  is  by  no  means  an  easy  matter,  and  it 
often  happens  that  the  dead  remain  unburied 
for  months,  and  even  for  years,  on  account 
of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  choosing 
either  fortunate  graves  or  lucky  days.  It  is 
probable  that  the  increased  fees  demanded  by 
protracted  investigations  do  not  tend  to  hasten 
the   process. 

As  soon  as  the  site  is  chosen  and  the  rites 
are  completed,  the  chief  mourner  goes  with  work- 
men to  the  spot  to  dig  the  grave.  Before  be- 
ginning he  worships  the  genii  of  the  moun- 
tain,  and   reads    aloud   a    notification    addressed 


420  Funeral  Rites. 

to  those  spirits,  in  these  words :  "  We,  the 
sons  and  relatives  of  such  and  such  a  one, 
who  died  on  such  and  such  a  day,  intend  to 
bury  his  remains  here,  and,  as  now  it  is  oar 
desire  to  make  ready  the  tomb,  we  pray  you 
not  only  to  grant  your  sanction  to  such  a 
proceeding  on  our  part,  but  at  all  times  to 
care  for  and  prosper  us.  Moreover,  we  respect- 
fully beg  to  present  to  you  offerings  of  fruits 
and  wines,  which  be  graciously  pleased  to  ac- 
cept." This  letter  having  been  sent  on  its 
way,  by  being  burnt  to  ashes,  the  work  be- 
gins, and,  when  the  requisite  depth  is  attained 
the  bottom  of  the  grave  is  protected  from 
damp  by  a   layer  of   lime   and   charcoal. 

Everything  being  now  ready  for  the  inter- 
ment, a  special  service  is  held  before  the  an- 
cestral tablet  of  the  deceased,  and  the  fol- 
lowing announcement  is  made  to  the  spirit : 
"  Perpetuating  the  rite  of  removal,  and  the 
propitious  hour  no  longer  delaying,  we  are 
now  about  to  escort  the  funeral  car,  and  thus 
reverently  to  walk  in  the  paths  of  our  ances- 
tors." The  assembled  family  then  prostrate 
themselves  before  the  tablet,  with  tears  and 
loud   lamentations. 


Dangerous   Grhosts.  421 

As  the  coffin  is  lifted  the  members  of  the 
family  rush  into  the  adjoining  rooms  lest  the 
ghost  of  the  dead  man  should,  owing  to  some 
sin  of  commission  or  omission,  strike  them  in 
his  wrath,  with  sickness  or  a  curse.  At  the 
door  of  the  house  the  coffin  is  placed  upon 
a  bier,  and  the  procession,  which  varies  in 
length  and  arrangement  according  to  the  wealth 
of  the  mourners  and  the  part  of  the  empire, 
marches  off  in  the  following  order  :  "  two  men 
bearing  large  lanterns,  recording  the  family 
name,  age,  and  titles  of  the  deceased ;  two 
men,  each  bearing  a  gong,  which  he  beats 
loudly  at  intervals,  to  give  warning  of  the  ap- 
proach of  the  cavalcade ;  and  sixteen  musi- 
cians, immediately  followed  by  men  with  flags, 
and  by  others  carrying  red  boards  with  the 
titles  of  the  deceased  and  of  his  ancestors  in- 
scribed on  them  in  letters  of  gold  .... 
The  ancestral  tablets  are  followed  by  four 
richly  carved  and  gilded  canopies  —  carried 
sometimes  by  horses,  sometimes  bj'  men  — 
under  each  of  which  are  arranged  offerings  for 
the  dead.  The  portrait  of  the  deceased  comes 
next,  carried  in  a  sedan-chair,  and  followed 
by   a    band  of  musicians.     Next  comes  a  sedan- 


422  Funeral  Rites. 

chair,  with  a  wooden  tablet  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  the,  deceased.  Then  follows  a  man 
called  Fung-loo-chun-jin,  who  scatters,  at  in- 
tervals, pieces  of  paper  supposed  to  represent 
ingots  of  silver  and  gold.  The  mock-money 
is  intended  for  hungry  ghosts,  i.  e.,  for  the 
souls  of  men  who  have  died  at  the  corners  of 
streets  ....  Next  come  the  sons  of  the 
deceased,"  *  immediately  in  front  of  the  bier, 
which  is  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  relatives, 
both  male  and  female.  The  only  animal  wliich 
is  carried  in  the  procession  is  a  white  cock, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  depository  of  one 
of  the  three  souls  with  which  men  are  cred- 
ited. The  argument  is,  that  as  cocks  are 
birds  of  tlie  East,  and  as  the  East  is  the  door 
of  life,  that  they  can  best  contain  that  part 
of  man  which  is  immortal.  At  the  brink  of 
the  grave  the  cock  is  either  sacrificed,  by 
which  means  the  soul  is  released  into  the 
tomb,  or  it  is  made  to  incline  forward  three 
times  into  the  grave,  by  each  member  of  the 
familj". 

If    the   distance    to   the    grave   is    short,    the 
mourners   walk  in    the   procession,    with    the  ex- 

"Ardxleacon  Gray's  "China,"  Vo).  I. 


Funeral  Bake-meats.  423 

ceptioii  of  the  small-footed  women,  'who  are, 
for  the  most  part,  carried  on  the  backs  of 
their  female  attendants;  but  when  the  dis- 
tance is  considerable,  the  mourners,  both  male 
and  female,  travel  in  sedan-chairs,  if  in  the 
south  of  China,  and  in  carts  or  on  horse- 
back, if  in  the  north.  On  arrival  at  the  grave 
the  mourners  perform  the  Ko-t'ow  before  the 
coffin,  the  men  on  the  left  and  the  women 
on  the  right.  The  coffin  is  then  lowered  in 
the  grave,  and  the  Fung-shuy  professor,  hav- 
ing satisfied  himself  that  it  is  in  exactly  the 
right  position,  proceeds  to  burn  a  quantity  of 
mock-mone}^  carriages,  images  of  men-servants 
and  maid-servants,  for  the  use  of  the  deceased 
in    his   next   existence. 

The  procession  returns  to  the  house  in  the 
order  in  which  it  went  out,  and  the  ancestral 
tablet  having  been  placed  in  the  position 
proper  for  it  during  the  first  hundred  days 
of  mourning,  the  mourners  sit  down  to  the 
baked  meats  of  the  funeral  feast.  At  the  end 
of  a  hundred  days  the  sons  and  near  rela- 
tives shave  their  heads  and  exchange  their 
white  shoes,  and  white  silken  additions  to  their 
queues,    for    blue    ones,    that    color    being    the 


424  Funeral  Rites. 

next  stage  towards  a  return  to  the  ordinary 
colors  of  every-day  life.  'By  a  common  fiction, 
the  period  of  three  years'  mourning  is  reduced 
to  twenty-seven  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  family  return  to  the  use  of  red  vis- 
.  iting-cards,  and  remove  from  their  dwelling 
and  attire  all  traces  of  their  grief.  Sons  hold- 
ing official  rank  return  to  their  posts,  candi- 
dates for  examination  present  themselves  before 
the  examiners,  and  the  intermitted  ceremonies 
of  marrying  and  giving  in  marriage  are  again 
entered   upon  with    alacrity. 

On  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  the  de- 
ceased, and  also  in  the  third  month  in  each 
year,  the  family  go  to  the  tomb  to  sacrifice 
at  it  to  their  ancestors.  The  tombs,  which 
are  all  designed,  not  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  survivors,  but  in  obedience  to  recog- 
nized rules,  vary  in  size  and  in  other  par- 
ticulars, according  to  the  rank  of  the  deceased 
and  the  part  of  the  empire.  In  the  southern 
provinces,  and  on  the  plains  in  the  north,  the 
tombs  and  graveyards  are  shaped  in  the  form 
of  an  omega,  which,  if  it  were  not  traceable  to 
the  requirements  of  Fung-shuy,  might  be  sup- 
posed to   have   been  adopted   from   the   conven- 


Sepulchres. 


425 


tional  symbol  for  the  end  among  the  Greeks. 
A  duke,  marquis,  or  earl,  is  entitled  to  a 
sepulchre  one  hundred  and  thirty  yards  in 
circumference,  with  four  entrances ;  officials 
of  the  first  and  second  rank  must  be  con- 
tent  to   lie  within    a   boundary    of   one   hundred 


IN    A    CHINKSE    CEMETEUY. 


and  ten  yards  long,  and  to  possess  only 
two  doors;  officials  of  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  ranks  are  reduced  to  a  hundred  yards; 
and    the   still   lower   grades  to   sixty   yards. 


Funeral  Rites. 


A  sliding-scale  is  also  provided  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  avenues  of  stone  figures  which  lead 
up  to  the  sepulchres  of  the  great.  For  every 
one,  from  a  duke  to  an  official  of  the  second 
rank,  it  is  decreed  that  their  tombs  may  be 
protected  by  two  stone  men,  two  horses,  two 
tigers,  and  two  rams,  besides  two  pillars  at 
the  entrance.  The  figures  are  generally  made 
life-size  or  laiger,  and  of  granite.  The  tomb- 
stone, which  records  the  name  and  titles  of 
the  deceased  and  the  dates  of  his  birth  and 
death,  stands  on  the  back  of  a  stone  tortoise, 
and  above  the  inscription  is  carved  the  figure 
of  a  weird-looking,  hornless  dragon.  In  Shanse 
and  other  parts  of  the  empire  the  sepulchral 
monuments  vary  very  much  in  shape.  Black 
glazed  tiles  generally  cover  the  tombs  in 
Shan-se,  and  a  not  infrequent  form  of  monu- 
ment is    that   of  a   huge   lighted    candle. 

The  imperial  tombs  infinitely  excel  the  tombs 
of  the  highest  nobles  in  size  and  grandeur. 
The  burying-place  of  the  eniperors  of  the  Ming 
Dynasty  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nanking, 
while  those  of  the  present  line  repose  among 
the   mountains   to   the    northeast   of  Peking. 

Universal    as    the    practice    of    burying    may 


Cremation,  427 

be  said  to  be  in  China,  there  are  exceptions 
to  it.  The  Buddhist  priests  as  a  rule,  prefer 
cremation ;  and  this  custom,  which  came  from 
India  with  the  religion  they  profess,  has  at 
times  found  imitators  among  the  laity.  In 
Formosa  the  dead  are  exposed  and  dried  in 
the  air,  and  some  of  the  Meaou-tsze  tribes  of 
Central  and  Southern  China  bury  their  dead, 
it  is  true,  but  after  an  interval  of  a  year  or 
more,  having  chosen  a  lucky  day,  they  dis- 
inter them.  On  such  occasions  they  go  ac- 
companied by  their  friends,  to  the  grave,  and, 
having  opened  the  tomb,  they  take  out  the 
bones,  and,  after  having  brushed  and  washed 
them  clean,  they  put  them  back  wrapped  in 
cloth. 


CHAPTER   XVll. 


THE  RELIGIONS   OP  CHINA. 


''pHE  Chinese 
describe  them- 
selves as  hav- 
i^  ing  three  re- 
igions.  More 
J  accurately, 
there  are  three 
sects,  namely, 
Joo  keaou^  the 
sect  of  Schol- 
ar 8 ;  Fu h 
keaou^  the  sect  of  Buddha ;  and  Taou  keaou^ 
the  sect  of  Taou.  Both  as  regards  age  and 
origin,  the  sect  of  Scholars,  or  as  it  is  gener- 
ally called,  Confucianism,  represents  pre-emi- 
nently the  religion  of  China.  It  has  its  root 
in  the  worship  of  Shang-te,  a  deity  which  is 
associated    with    the    earliest    traditions    of    the 

428 


The  Views  of  Confucius.  429 

Chinese  race.  Hwang-te  (2697  b.  c.)  erected  a 
temple  to  his  honor,  and  succeeding  emperors 
worshiped  before  his  shrine.  The  very  uncer- 
tain light  that  history  throws  on  the  condition 
of  the  empire  during  the  Hea  Dynasty  and  the 
preceding  centuries,  makes  it  impossible  to  pre- 
dicate anything  of  the  relations  m  which  the 
sovereigns  and  people  stood  to  Shang-te;  but 
with  the  rise  to  power  of  the  Shang  Dynasty 
(b.  c.  1766  - 1401),  we  find  a  belief  prevailing 
in  t;he  personal  interference  of  Shang-te  in  the 
affairs  of  man.  It  vas  due  to  him  that,  as  a 
reward  for  virtuous  and  godly  living,  men  were 
raised  :o  the  throne,  and  contrariwise,  bis  was 
the  avenging  hand  which  drove  into  obscurity 
those  sovereigns  who  had  deserted  the  paths 
of  rectitude.  Thus  we  read  in  the  Shoo-king 
that,  "moved  with  indignation  at  the  crime 
of  King  Show,  Great  Heaven  (i.  e.  Shan-te) 
charged  King  Wan  (the  twelfth  century  b.  c.) 
to  display  its  majesty,  and  to  destroy  the 
tyrant." 

During  the  troublous  times  which  followed 
after  the  reign  of  the  few  "first  sovereigns  of 
the  Chow  Dynasty,  the  belief  in  a  personal 
deity    grew     indistinct     and     dim,     until,    when 


480  The .  Religions  of  China. 

Confucius  began  his  career,  there  appeared 
nothing  strange  in  his  atheistic  doctrines.  He 
never  in  any  way  denied  the  existence  of 
Shang-te,  but  he  ignored  him.*  His  concern 
was  with  man  as  a  member  of  societj',  and 
the  object  of  his  teaching  was  to  lead  him  into 
those  paths  of  rectitude  which  might  best  con- 
tribute to  his  own  happiness,  and  to  the  well- 
being  of  that  community  of  which  he  formed 
part.  Man,  he  held,  was  born  good,  and  was 
endowed  with  qualities  which,  when  cultivated 
and  improved  by  watchfulness  and  self-restraint, 
might  enable  him  to  acquire  godlike  wisdom, 
and  to  become  "  the  equal  of  Heaven."  He 
divided  mankind  into  four  classes,  viz..  those 
who  are  born  with  the  possession  of  knowl- 
edge ;  those  who  learn,  and  so  readily  get  pos- 
session of  knowledge;  those  who  are  dull  and 
stupid,  and  yet  succeed  in  learning ;  lastly, 
those  who  are  dull  and  stupid,  and  yet  do  not 
learn."  To  all  these,  except  those  of  the 
last   class,    the    path    to  the    climax    reached   by 

♦  Confucius  did  not  profess  to  be  a  religious  teacher,  or  prophet,  nor  to  receive 
revelations.  He  confessed  that  there  was  a  Supreme  Being.  More  than  that 
he  did  not  profess  to  know.  He  avoided  speculations,  and  said  in  one  of  his 
maxims,  "To  know  what  one  does  know,  and  not  to  know  what  one  does  not 
know,  IS  knowledge."  The  author  seems  to  fail  to  appreciate  the  character  of 
Confucius  perfectly  in  the  above  remarks. 


A,   BUDDHIST    ABBOT. 


Self  Cultivation.  433 

the  "  Sage "  is  open.  Man  has  only  to 
watch,  listen  to,  understand,  and  obey  the 
moral  sense  implanted  in  him  by  Heaven, 
and  the  higliest  perfection  is  within  his 
reach.  The  self-cultivation  of  each  man 
was  the  root  of  the  system  which  is  thus 
epitomized  in  the  "  Great  Learning,"  by  TsSng, 
one  of  Confucius's  disciples :  —  "  The  ancients 
who  wished  to  illustrate  illustrious  virtue 
tliroughout  the  empire,  first  ordered  well  their 
own  states.  Wishing  to  order  well  their  own 
states,  they  first  regulated  their  own  families. 
Wishing  to  regulate  their  families,  they  first 
cultivated  their  persons.  Wishing  to  cultivate 
their  persons,  they  first  rectified  their  hearts. 
Wishing  to  rectify  their  hearts,  they  first 
sought  to  be  sincere  in  their  thoughts.  Wish- 
ing to  be  sincere  in  their  thoughts,  they  first 
extended  to  the  utmost  their  knowledge.  Such 
extension  of  knowledge  lay  in  the  investigation 
of  things.  Wlien  things  were  investigated, 
knowledge  became  complete.  Their  knowledge 
being  complete,  their  thoughts  became  sin- 
cere. Their  thoughts  being  sincere,  their 
hearts     were     then       rectified.       Their     hearts 

being    rectified,    their    persons    were    cultivated. 
28 


434  The  Religions  of  China. 

Their  perions  being  cultivated,  their  families 
were  regulated.  Their  families  being  reg- 
ulated, their  states  were  rightly  governed. 
Their  states  being  rightly  governed,  the  wliole 
empire  was  made  tranquil  and  happy."  Like 
the  widening  ripple  caused  by  dropping  a  stone 
into  a  pool,  all  these  consequences  were  to 
flow  from  self-cultivation,  the  effect  of  which 
finds  its  expression  in  words  and  conduct. 
Principally,  however,  it  is  expressed  in  the 
exercise  of  filial  piet}',  which  is  the  corner- 
stone  of  the   Confucian   edifice. 

In  this  system  there  is  no  place  for  a  per- 
sonal God.  The  impersonal  Heaven,  accord- 
ing to  Confucius,  implants  a  pure  nature  in 
every  being  at  his  birth,  but,  having  done  this, 
there  is  no  further  supernatural  interference 
with  the  thoughts  and  deeds  of  men.  It  is 
in  the  power  of  each  one  to  perfect  his 
nature,  and  there  is  no  divine  influence  to 
restrain  those  who  take  the  downward  course. 
Man  has  his  destiny  in  his  own  hands,  to 
make  or  to  mar.  Neither  had  Confucius  any 
inducement  to  offer  to  encourage  men  in  the 
practice  of  virtue,  except  virtue's  self.  He 
was   a   matter-of-fact,    unimaginative    man,    who 


The  Worship  of  Shang-te.  '    435 

was  quite  content  to  occupy  himself  with 
the  study  of  his  fellow-men,  and  was  disin- 
clined to  grope  into  the  future  or  to  peer  up- 
wards. No  wonder  that  his  system,  as  he 
enunciated  it,  proved  a  failure.  Eagerly  he 
sought  in  the  execution  of  his  official  duties 
to  effect  the  regeneration  of  the  empire,  but 
beyond  the  circle  of  his  personal  disciples  he 
found  few  followers,  and  as  soon  as  princes 
and  statesmen  had.  satisfied  their  curiosity 
about  him  they  turned  their  backs  on  his 
precepts    and    would    none    of  his  reproofs. 

Succeeding  ages,  recognizing  the  loftiness  of 
his  aims,  eliminated  all  that  was  impractica- 
ble and  unreal  in  his  system,  and  held  fast 
to  that  part  of  it  that  was  true  and  good. 
They  were  content  to  accept  the  logic  of 
events,  and  to  throw  overboard  the  ideal 
"sage,"  and  to  ignore  the  supposed  potency 
of  his  influence ;  but  they  clung  to  the  doc- 
trines of  filial  piety,  brotherly  love,  and  vir- 
tuous living.  It  is  admiration  for  the 
emphasis  which  he  laid  on  these  and  other 
virtues  which  has  drawn  so  many  millions  of 
men  unto  him ;  which  has  made  his  tomb 
at    Keo-foo-heen     the '  Mecca    of    Confucianism, 


436  The  Religions  of  China. 

and  has  adorned  every  city  of  the  empire 
with  temples  built  in  his  honor.  Twice  a 
year  the  emperor  goes  in  state  to  the  Kwo- 
tsze-keen  temple  at  Peking,  and  having  twice 
knelt,  and  six  times  bowed  his  head,  to  the 
earth,  invokes  the  presence  of  the  sage  in 
these  words:  —  "Great  art  thou,  O  perfect 
Sage !  Thy  virtue  is  full ;  thy  doctrine  is 
complete.  Among  mortal  men  there  has  not 
been  thine  equal.  All  kings  honor  thee. 
Thj*  statutes  and  laws  have  come  gloriously 
down.  Thou  art  the  pattern  of  this  imperial 
school.  Reverently  have  the  sacrificial  vessels 
been  set  out.  Full  of  awe  we  sound  our 
drums   and   bells." 

On  the  same  dates,  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  the  officials  in  every  city  go  to  the 
local  temples,  and  there  imitate  the  reverence 
and  worship  of  their  imperial  master.  Con- 
currently with  the  lapse  of  pure  Confucianism, 
and  the  adoption  of  those  principles  which 
find  their  earliest  expression  in  the  pre- 
Confucian  classes  of  China,  there  is  observ- 
able a  return  to  the  worship  of  Shang-te. 
The  most  magnificent  temple  in  the  empire  is 
the   Temple   of  Heaven,    at   Peking,   where   the 


Taouism.  437 

highest  object  of  Chinese  worship  is  adored 
with  the  purest  rites.  The  emperor,  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  empire,  alone  worships  at  this 
sacred  shrine,  where  no  trace  of  idolatry 
finds  a  place.  Thrice  a  year  he  proceeds  in 
state  to  this  azure-tiled  holy  place,  as  well 
as  on  other  special  occasions.  The  evening 
before  the  day  of  sacrifice,  he  goes  in  an 
elephant  carriage,  accompanied  by  his  princes 
and  ministers,  to  the  Palace  of  Fasting  adjoin- 
ing the  temple,  and  there  spends  the  night 
in  meditation.  At  dawn  of  day  he  ascends 
the  Altar  of  Heaven,  which  consists  of  three 
round  marble  terraces,  and  is  reached  by 
twenty-seven  steps.  Here  he  prostrates  him- 
self before  the  tablet  of  Shang-te,  and  hav- 
ing presented  the  sacrifices  prescribed  in  the 
rituals,  he  offers  up  a  prayer,  in  which  he 
humbles  himself  before  the  deity,  and  be- 
seeches him  to  bestow  his  blessings  on  the 
land.  What  is  popularly  known  in  Europe  as 
Confucianism  is,  therefore,  Confucianism  with 
the  distinctive  opinions  of  Confucius  omitted  — 
the  play  of  Hamlet  without  the  ghost;  and  is 
far  more  correctly  described  by  the  Chinese 
denomination   of  Joo  keaou,  or  sect   of  scholars, 


438  The  Religions  of  China. 

since  it  finds  its  expression  in  those  ancient 
classical  works  from  which  alone  the  scholars 
of   the   empire   draw   their   faith    and  wisdom. 

This  worship  of  Shang-te  is  confined  only  to 
the  emperor.  The  people  have  no  lot  or 
heritage  in  the  sacred  acts  of  worship  at  the 
Altar  of  Heaven.  Their  part  in  the  Joo  keaou 
is  to  reverence  their  parents,  to  love  their 
brothers,  to  obey  their  rulers,  to  be  content 
with  the  knowledge  placed  within  their  reach, 
to  live  peaceably  with  their  neighbors,  and  to 
pay  their  taxes.  These  are  the  main  points 
insisted  on  in  the  sixteen  Maxims  of  the 
Emperor  K'ang-he,  and  they  are  the  popular 
outcome  of  an  impossible  system,  which  ap- 
pealed only  to  the  intellects  of  a  small  body 
of  scholars. 

Side  by  side  with  the  revival  of  the  Joo 
keaou,  under  the  infiuence  of  Confucius,  grew 
up  a  system  of  a  totally  different  nature, 
which,  when  divested  of  its  esoteric  doctrines, 
and  reduced  by  the  practically-minded  China- 
men to  a  code  of  morals,  was  destined  in 
future  ages  to  become  aflBliated  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Sage.  This  was  Taouism, 
which   was    founded     by    Laou-tsze,  who   was   a 


Laou-Tsze.  439 

contemporary  of  Confucius.  An  air  of  mys- 
tery hangs  over  the  history  of  Laou-tsze.  Of 
his  parentage  we  know  nothing,  and  the  histo- 
rians, in  their  anxiety  to  conceal  their  igno- 
rance of  his  earlier  years,  shelter  themselves 
behind  the  legend  that  he  was  born  an  old 
man.  He  certainly  first  appears  on  the  stage 
when  past  middle  age,  and  in  this  he  affords 
a  marked  contrast  to  his  great  rival,  about 
whose  birth,  childhood,  and  youth,  we  have 
abundant  detail.  His  appearance  also  was 
unusual.  His  ears  were  large,  his  eyebrows 
were  handsome,  he  had  large  eyes,  a  double- 
ridged  nose,  and  a  square  mouth.  These  are 
very  un-Chinese  features,  and,  coupled  with 
the  fact  that  nothing  is  known  either  of  his 
early  days  or  of  his  declining  years,  they 
suggest  the  possibility  that  he  was  a  foreigner, 
or  perhaps  a  member  of  an  aboriginal  fron- 
tier tribe.  But  this  supposition  finds  some 
countenance  in  the  name  of  Le,  which  he 
assumed,  that  being  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  powerful  tribes  in  ancient  China.  By 
some  it  is  said  that  he  was  born  at  the  vil- 
lage of  Keuh  jin  ("oppressed  benevolence"),  in 
the   parish   of  Le,    ("cruelty"),   in    the   district 


440  The  Religions  of  China. 

of  K'oo  ("bitterness"),  iu  the  state  of  Tt^'oo 
("suffering.")  This  K'oo  is  commonl}'  identi- 
fied with  an  ancient  city  of  that  name,  which 
stood  near  the  modern  Kwei-tih  Foo,  in  the 
province  of  Honan.  At  K'oo-yang,  which  now 
occupies  the  same  site,  a  house  is  shown  in 
which  Laou-tsze  is  said  to  have  lived,  and 
his  memory  is  still  further  preserved  there  by 
a  temple    which   is   dedicated   to  his   honor. 

This  is  all  that  his  biographers  have  to 
tell  us  of  him  until  he  appears  as  Keeper  of 
the  Archives  at  the  Court  of  Chow,  which 
occupied  a  part  of  the  same  province.  Here 
we  find  him,  surrounded  by  a  band  of  disci- 
ples, teaching  a  system  which  embodied  so 
many  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Indian 
philosophers  that  the  question  suggests  itself, 
whether  or  no  he  might  not  have  become,  in 
some  way,  imbued  with  the  tenets  of  those 
men.  We  know  that  communication  with 
India  was  open,  even  at  that  period,  and  it 
might  be  that  he  was  either  a  native  of  that 
country  or  of  one  of  the  intervening  states. 
If  this  were  so,  it  would  account  for  the 
existing  ignorance  of  his  family  history,  and 
for  his    being  lost   to   sight   when    he   resigned 


An  Eternal  Road.  441 

his  uffice  at  the  Court  of  Chow,  and  passed 
westward  through  the  Haii-koo  Pass.  The 
object  of  his  teaching  was  to  induce  men,  by 
the  practice  of  self-abnegation,  to  become  at 
last  absorbed  in  something  that  he  called 
Taou^  which  bears  a  certain  resemblance  to 
the  Nirvana  of  the  Buddhists.  The  pri- 
mary meaning  of  Taou  is,  "  The  way,"  "  The 
path,''  but  in  Laou-tsze's  philosophy  it  was 
more  than  the  way,  it  was  the  way-goer  as 
well.  It  was  an  eternal  road ;  along  it  all 
beings  and  things  walked ;  it  was  everything 
and  nothing,  and  the  cause  and  effect  of  all. 
All  !}hihgs  originated  from  Taou^  conformed 
to  Tdou^  and  to  Taou  at  last  returned.  '•''Taou 
is  impalpable.  You  look  at  it,  and  you  cannot 
see  it ;  you  listen  to  it,  and  you  cannot  hear 
it;  you  try  to  touch  it,  and  you  cannot 
reach  it ;  you  use  it,  and  you  cannot  exhaust 
it.  It  is  not  to  be  expressed  in  words.  It  is 
still  and  void ;  it  stands  alone  and  changes 
not;  it  circulates  everywhere  and  is  not  en- 
dangered.    It   is   ever   inactive,    and    yet   leaves 

nothing     undone Formless,      it      is      the 

ofluse  of    form It   is   the    ethical    nature 

of    the    good     man,    and    the    principle    of    his 


442  The  Religions  of  China. 

action.  If,  then,  we  had  to  express  the  mean 
ing  of  Taov^  we  should  describe  it  as  the. 
Absolute ;  the  totality  of  Being  and  Things ; 
the  phenomenal  world  and  its  order;  and  the 
ethical  nature  of  the  good  man,  and  the 
principle    of    his   action,"* 

It  was  absorption  into  this  "Mother  of  all 
things "  that  Laou-tsze  aimed  at.  And  this 
end  was  to  be  attained  by  self-emptiness, 
and  by  giving  free  scope  to  the  uncontam- 
inated  nature  which,  like  Confucius,  he  taught 
was  given  by  Heaven  to  all  men.  His  was 
a  more  radical  cure  for  the  evils  of  the  age 
than  that  of  his  rival.  Confucius  said  that 
the  great  reformation  necessary  was  to  rectify 
names.  Laou-tsze  said.  Return  to  the  man- 
ners of  the  time  before  vice  had  made  names 
necessar}^  before  disobedience  to  parents  had 
given  rise  to  the  expression  "filial  piety,"  and 
before  family  contentions  and  rudeness  had 
made  men  formulate  the  terms  "brotherly  love 
and  propriety."  These  subtleties,  like  the 
more  abstruse  speculations  of  Confucius,  were 
suited  only  to  the  taste  of  the  schools.  To 
the   common   people   they    were  foolishness,  and, 

*  "  Confucianism  and  Taouism." 


A  System  of  Magic.  443 

before  long,  the  philosophical  doctrine  of  Laou- 
tsze  of  the  identity  of  existence  and  non- 
existence, assumed  in  their  eyes  a  warrant  for 
the  old  Epicurean  motto,  "  Let  us  eat  and 
drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die."  The  pleasures 
of  sense  were  substituted  for  the  delights  of 
virtue,  and  the  next  step  was  to  desire  pro- 
longation of  the  time  when  those  pleasures 
could  be  enjoyed.  Legend  said  that  Laou-tsze 
had  secured  immunity  from  death  by  drinking 
the  elixir  of  immortality,  and  to  enjoy  the 
same  privilege  became  the  all-absorbing  object 
of  his  followers.  The  demand  for  elixirs  and 
charms  produced  a  supply,  and  Taouism 
quickly  degenerated  into  a  system  of  magic. 
Mountains  were  searched  for  life-giving  herbs, 
and  the  seas  were  swept  to  discover  the 
"  Isles  of  the  Blest."  Magicians  and  sorcerers 
occupied  high  places  at  the  courts  of  empe- 
rors, and  all  the  unselfish  and  virtuous  teach- 
ings  of  Laou-tsze    were   forgotten. 

The  superstitious  credulity  »  of  the  people 
almost  exceeded  belief,  but  had  at  last,  as  far 
as  the  elixir  of  immortality  was  concerned,  to 
yield  to  the  stern  logic  of  facts,  and  the  at- 
tempt to   avert   those    ills   of    life,    disease   and 


444  The  Religions  of  China. 

poverty,  which  have  pressed  so  hardly  on 
humanit}'  through  all  ages,  took  the  place  of 
vain  seekiugs  after  perpetual  youth.  Charms 
and  magical  formula  were  invented  to  abolish 
want  and  sickness,  and  gods  were  called  into 
being  to  preside  over  the  distribution  of  bless- 
ings to  mankind ;  but,  while  this  was  the 
facet  of  the  many-sided  religion  which  caught 
the  eye  of  the  vulgar  and  illiterate,  there  was 
shown  to  the  educated  and  upper  classes  an 
ethical  system,  moulded  out  of  the  moral  say- 
ings of  Laou-tsze,  which  differed  little  from 
the  popular  aspect  of  Confucianism.  The  con- 
cessions thus  made,  were  met  by  corresponding 
concessions  on  the  part  of  Confucianists,  who 
have  practically  adopted  into  their  cult  the 
worship  of  many  of  the  gods  which  were  in- 
vented by  the  Taouists.  Wan  cKang  te  keun, 
the  god  of  literature,  for  example,  receives 
imperial  worship  twice  in  each  year,  and  is 
universally  invoked  on  behalf  of  their  efforts 
by  competitors  at  the  literary  examinations. 
The  monopoly  which  Taouist  priests  enjoy,  as 
the  exponents  of  the  mysteries  of  nature, 
make  them  indispensably  necessarj-  to  all 
classes,    and     the   most    confirmed     Coufucianist 


The  Monopoly  of  Taouism. 


445 


does  not  hesitate  to  consult  the  followers 
of  Laou-tsze  on  the  choice  of  the  site  for 
his  house,  the  position  of  his  family  grave- 
Si  KO 


A   CHINESE    SHRINE. 


yard,  or  a  fortunate  da.j  for  undertaking  an 
enterprise.  Apart  from  the  practice  of  these 
magical   arts,    Taouism   has     become    assimilated 


446  The  Religions  of  China. 

with  modern  Confucianism,  and  is  scarcely- 
distinguishable  from  it;  but  in  its  more  de- 
based and  superstitious  form  it  is  as  far  removed 
from  Confucianism  as  Shamanism  is  from  the 
teachings   of    Sakyamuni 

The  teachings  of  Laou-tsze  having  familiar- 
ized the  Chinese  mind  with  philosopJjical  doc- 
trines, which,  whatever  were  their  direct 
source,  bore  a  marked  resemblance  to  the 
musings  of  Indian  sages,  served  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  introduction  of  Buddhism.  The 
exact  date  at  which  the  Chinese  first  became 
acquainted  with  the  doctrines  t)f  Buddha  was, 
according  to  an  author  quoted  in  K'ang-he's 
Imperial  Encyclopaedia,  the  thirtieth  year  of 
the  reign  of  She  Hwang-te,  i.  e.,  B.  c.  216. 
The  story  this  writer  tells  of  the  difficulties 
which  the  first  missionaries  encountered  is 
curious  and  singularly  suggestive  of  the  nar- 
rative of  St.  Peter's  imprisonment.  The 
Western  Shaman,  Le-fang,  with  seventeen 
others,  arrived,  we  are  told,  at  Loyang,  in 
the  year  mentioned,  bringing  with  them  origi- 
nal sutras  in  Braham's  [Fan]  characters. 
Being  foreigners,  they  were  examined  b}'  the 
officials,   and     by     the     emperor's     orders,   were 


Introduction  of  Buddhism.  447 

thrown  into  prison  as  "strange  customers;" 
but  Le-fang  and  his  comrades  continued  chant- 
ing the  Maha  Prajiia  Paramita,  when  sud- 
denly a  bright  and  shining  light,  accompanied 
by  an  auspicious  halo,  permeated  into  and 
filled  the  prison.  At  the  same  time  a  deity 
appeared,  bright  as  gold  {literally^  golden 
deity),  holding  in  his  hand  a  sceptre  with 
which,  with  exceeding  majesty,  he  struck  the 
prison  [walls],  which  were  shivered  to  atoms. 
Lefang  and  his  companions  then  came  forth,  and 
the  emperor,  alarmed  by  the  miracle,  repented 
of  his  sin,  and  treated  his  quondam  prisoners 
with   every   sign   of  marked   respect. 

What  became  of  them  we  are  not  told; 
possibly,  disgusted  with  the  reception  they 
had  met,  they  returned  whence  they  came. 
At  all  events,  the}'^  left  no  mark  on  the 
minds  of  the  people,  and  the  next  reference 
to  Buddhism,  or  what  is  claimed  to  be  Bud- 
dhism, is  found  in  the  history  of  the 
reign  of  Woo-te,  who,  in  b.  c.  120,  sent  Gen- 
eral Ho  K'ii-p'ing  with  a  large  force  against 
the  Heung-noo  Tartars.  Tliis  officer,  we  are 
told,  having  crossed  the  Yen-k'e  Mountains 
(in    Turkestan?),     defeated     the     enemy,     and 


448  The  Religions  of  China. 

carried  back  with  him,  as  a  trophy  of  his 
,  victory,  a  golden  image  which  had  been  the 
object  of  the  king  Heo-t'u's  worship;  but  even 
if  the  image  was  that  of  Buddha,  no  in- 
struction in  the  religion  was  received  with  it, 
and  it  was  reserved  for  the  Emperor  Ming-te, 
a  hundred  and  eighty-two  years  later,  to  in- 
troduce a  knowledge  of  that  system  which,  in 
purity  and  loftiness  of  aim,  takes  its  place 
next  to  Christianity  among  the  religions  of 
the  world.  One  night  he  dreamed  that  a 
monster  golden  image  appeared,  and  address- 
ing him,  said:  "Buddha  bids  you*  send  to 
the  Western  countries  to  search  for  him,  and 
to  get  books  and  images."  Ming-te  obeyed, 
and  sent  an  embassy  to  India,  which  returned 
after  an  absence  of  eleven  years,  bringing 
back  images,  drawings,  and  the  Sutra  of 
fort3^-two  Sections,  and,  what  was  more  im- 
portant, the  mission  was  accompanied  by  the 
Indian,  Kasyfipa  Matanga,  who,  on  his  ar- 
rival at  Loyang,  translated  the  Sutra  into 
Chinese.  Kasyapa  Mataiiga  was  followed  b}' 
Fa-lan,  who  brought  with  him,  among  other 
works,  the  Dasabhumi  Sntra  and  the  Lalita 
Vistara.     These,  in  conjunction  with  his  fellow- 


Missionaries  from  India.  449 

laborer,  he  translated  into  Chinese,  and  from 
this  time  Buddhism  grew  and  prevailed  in  the 
land. 

During  the  next  few  centuries  constant  ad- 
ditions were  made  to  the  number  of  the  In- 
dian missionaries,  who  were  indefatigable  in 
their  work  as  translators.  In  many  cases  their 
zeal  was  greater  than  the  accuracy  of  their 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  it  was  deter- 
mined to  have  a  revised  version  of  the  trans- 
lated Sutras  made.  For  this  purpose  Kiimara- 
jiva,  a  learned  Indian  priest,  was  invited  to 
the  Court  of  Tsin,  where  he  was  given 
office,  and  where,  with  tlie  help  of  eight  hun- 
dred priests,  he  revised  three  hundred  volumes. 
While  this  work  was  in  contemplation,  a 
Chinese  Buddhist,  Fa-heen  by  name,  started 
on  a  journey  to  India,  to  procure  the  texts 
of  Buddhist  works  yet  unknown  to  his  coun- 
tryme)!.  By  a  somewhat  circuitous  route  by 
the  Steppes  of  Tartary,  the  Country  of  the 
Ouighurs,  and  Afghanistan,  he  reached  the  goal 
of  his  desires.  With  all  the  zeal  of  a  convert 
he  visited,  with  devotion,  the  spots  made 
sacred  b}-  the  presence  of  Buddha,  never,  how- 
29 


450  The  Religions  of  China. 

ever,  forgetting  the  main  object  of  his  jour- 
ney, and  finally  returned  to  China  by  sea  from 
Ceylon,  after  an  absence  of  fourteen  years, 
laden   with   books. 

Besides  books  and  images,  relics  of  Buddha 
were  brought  to  China,  and  were  received  with 
every  token  of  honor.  The  priest,  Hiuen-tsang, 
who  visited  India  rather  more  than  two  cen- 
turies later  than  Fa-heen,  carried  back  with 
him  a  hundred  and  fifteen  bits  taken  from 
Buddha's  chain.  At  other  times  bones  of  the 
Saint  aroused  the  religious  rapture  of  the 
Chinese  converts,  and  at  the  present  time,  in 
a  dim  glnss  case  in  a  temple  on  the  Sacred 
Mount  of  Teen-tai,  near  Ningpo,  there  is  shown 
a  scrap  of  the  body  of  Buddha,  which  was 
saved  from  the  burning.  To  those  devout  dis- 
ciples, who  have  the  mind  of  Buddha,  this 
precious  relic  appears  to  be  of  a  yellow  color, 
but  to  those  of  less  spiritual  discernment  no 
such    golden    hue   is   vouchsafed. 

The  literati  protested  against  the  worship  of 
the  relics  as  vehemently  as  they  have  since 
objected  to  Christianity  ;  but  the  instinct  of 
the  nation  declared  otherwise,  and  thej'  had 
the  mortification  of  seeing  pagoda  after  pagoda 


Bodhidharma  arrives. 


451 


raised  to  cover  a  bone,  or  a  scrap  of  the 
flesh,  or,  it  may  chance,  a  hair  of  the  head, 
of  Buddha.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century  it  is  said  that  there  were  three  thou- 
sand Indians   in  China,  and   it  was  at  this  time 


IN    A   TEMPLE. 


that  Bodhidharma,  the  first  of  the  six  patri- 
archs, arrived  at  Canton  b}*  sea.  By  his  teach- 
ing was  first  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Chinese  the  Mahayana  system,  whicli  was  the 
outcome  of    the    change    which    Buddhism   had 


452  The  Religions  of  China. 

undergone  in  India.  It  was  prophesied  by- 
Buddha  that  for  five  hundred  years  the  purity 
of  his  doctrine  would  be  maintained,  bat  that 
a  thousand  years  after  his  time  men  would 
depart  from  the  true  path  and  wander  in  tlie 
labyrinths   of    heresy. 

Even  before  the  time  foretold  by  the  saint 
his  professing  followers  began  to  weary  of  the 
moral  asceticism  and  active  self-denying  chanty 
of  which  his  system  consisted,  and  turned 
aside  in  pursuit  of  philosophical  and  abstrusely 
metaph3'sical  ideas,  and  in  search  of  ritualistic 
emblems  and  idolatrous  symbolism.  The  non- 
existence of  existence,  and  the  unreality  of 
everything  beyond  the  mind,  were  the  texts 
on  which  these  men  loved  to  enlarge,  and 
when  weary  with  disputations  they  retired  to 
cloistered  cells  and  mountain-caves,  to  practise 
that  abstraction  of  the  mind  which  alone,  they 
believed,  would  enable  them  to  suppress  lust, 
to  conquer  the  sensations,  and  to  attain  bliss. 
For  nine  j'ears  Bodhidharma  sat  with  his  face 
to  a  wall  in  a  monastery  at  Loyang,  and 
earned  for  himself  a  high  reputation  for  spirit- 
uality by  so  doing,  and  when  the  time  came 
for    him    to    die    he    departed    in    the    full    odor 


The  Mysterious  Nirvdna.  453 

of  sanctity.  "Where  are  you  going?"  inquired 
Sung-yuu  the  Traveller,  of  his  corpse,  as  it  lay 
in  the  coffin,  holding  one  shoe  in  its  hand. 
"To  the  western  heaven,"  was  the  confident 
and   ghostly   reply. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  Mahay  ana  sys- 
tem the  mysterious  Nirvana  had,  as  a  reward 
for  virtue,  been  supplemented  by  a  "Pure  land 
>in  the  West,"  where  there  is  "fulness  of  life, 
and  no  pain  nor  sorrow  mixed  with  it;  no 
need   to   be   born   again,   no   Nirvana   even. 

There  are  there,  also,  a  sevenfold  row  of 
railings,  or  of  balustrades,  a  sevenfold  row  of 
silken  nets,  and  a  sevenfold  row  of  trees  hedg- 
ing in  the  whole  country.  In  the  midst  there 
are  seven  precious  ponds,  the  waters  of  which 
possess  all  the  eight  qualities  which  the  best 
water  can  have,  viz.,  they  are  still,  pure  and 
cold,  sweet  and  agreeable,  light  and  soft,  fresh 
and  rich ;  they  tranquilize,  remove  hunger  and 
thirst,  and  nourish  all  roots.  The  bottom  of 
these  ponds  is  covered  with  golden  sands,  and 
round  about  there  are  pavements  constructed 
of  precious  stones  and  metals,  and  many  two- 
storied  pavilions  built  of  richly-colored  tran- 
sparent   jewels.      On   the    surface   of  the  water 


454  The  Religions  of  China. 

there  are  beautiful  lotos-flowers  floating,  each 
as  large  as  a  carriage-wheel,  displaying  the 
most  dazzling  colors,  and  dispersing  the  most 
fragrant  aroma.  There  are  also  beautiful  birds 
which  make  delicious  enchanting  music,  and  at 
every  breath  of  wind  the  very  trees  on  which 
these  birds  are  resting  join  in  the  chorus,  shak- 
ing their  leaves  in  trembling  accords  of  sweet- 
est harmony  ....  This  music  is  like  Lieder 
ohne  Worte ;  its  melodies  speak  to  the  heart ; 
but  they  discourse  on  Buddha,*  Dharmo,  and 
Samgha,  and  wake  an  echo  in  every  breast, 
so  that  all  the  immortals  that  live  in  this 
happ}"^  land  instinctively  join  in  hymns  of  praise, 
devoutly  invoking  Buddha,  Dharma,  and  Samgha, 
Such  was  the  blissful  region  to  which  Bod- 
hidharma  declared  himself  to  be  marching  on, 
and  such  is  the  heaven  which  Chinese  Budd- 
hists of  the  present  day  hope  to  reach  ;  but 
this  goal  is  not  to  be  attained  by  an  ejffort, 
however  praiseworthy,  which  would  only  con- 
taminate the  mind.  It  is  to  be  won  solely 
by  abstracting  the  mind  from  everything  be- 
yond itself,  by  sitting  before  a  wall  (if  not 
actually,   as    the    first    patriarch   did,  yet   men- 

*  Eitel's   "  Lectures   on   Buddhism." 


Pure  Nothingness.  'ibb 

tally),  by  seeing  nothing,  hearing  nothing,  and 
thinking  of  nothing.  The  invention  of  this 
pure  region  has,  no  doubt,  been  of  infinite 
advantage  to  the  cause  of  Buddhism  in  China, 
since  it  presents  a  practical  reward  for  merit, 
and  is  one  that  the  ordinar}'^  Chinaman  can 
realize ;  but  its  existence  is  obviously  inconsis- 
tent with  the  orthodox  belief  in  Nirvana. 
However  much  schools  may  differ  as  to  wliat 
Nirvana  is,  they  must  all  be  agreed  that  it 
is  not  a  material  paradise,  such  as  the  Pure 
land  in  the  West,  wliich,  like  Dan  and  Beersheba 
consecrated  by  Jeroboam  who  made  Israel  to 
sin,  is  evidently  intended  as  an  easily  attain- 
able substitute  for  the  Jerusalem  of  Nirvana. 
To  the  school  of  Buddhists  which  regards 
Nirvdna  as  absolute  annihilation,  the  idea  of 
a  paradise  into  which  neither  pain  nor  sorrow 
nor  death  can  enter,  where  there  is  perfect 
happiness  and  rest,  and  where  every  surround- 
ing is  but  a  note  in  one  harmonious  melody 
of  peace  and  joy,  is  a  temptation  strong  enough 
to  try  the  orthodoxy  of  the  staunchest  Budd- 
hists, but  in  China,  as  elsewhere,  the  views  held 
by  Buddhists  on  the  subject  of  Nirvana  differ 
widel}'.     There    are    those     who    believe    in    the 


456  The  Religions  of  China. 

annihilation  theorj^  and  there  are  those  who 
hold  that  the  annihilation  refers  only  to  the 
material  body  of  man,  and  that  when  this  is 
extinguished,  "  like  the  flame  of  a  lamp,"  the 
spiritual  body  enters  into  a  state  of  absolute 
and  complete  purity,  where  it  is  free  from  the 
circles  of  metempsychosis,  and  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  sin  and  passion.  Some,  again,  hold 
that  the  Pure  land  in  the  West  is  but  a 
preliminary  stage  on  the  way  to  Nirvana,  and 
that  there  the  righteous  soul  is  allowed  to  en- 
joy ageSx  of  happiness  before  it  has  again  to 
enter  the  circles  of  metempsychosis,  and  b}^  a 
fresh  course  of  virtue  to  win  its  way  to  the 
supreme   bliss   of  Nirvana. 

Such  a  theme  admits  of  the  wildest  specula- 
tions, and  the  philosophers  of  each  school  have 
given  full  rein  to  their  imaginations  in  the 
exercise  of  their  sophistical  casuistry  upon  it. 
The  followers  of  the  Mahayana  system  dissolve 
every  possible  proposition  on  the  subject  of 
Nirvana  into  a  thesis  and  its  antithesis,  and 
deny  both.  Thus  they  say  that  Nirvana  is 
not  annihilation,  and  quote  a  noted  saying  of 
Sakyamuni's,  the  "name  Nirvana  does  not  im- 
ply  that    it    is   a   state    of    annihilation ; "    but 


Sakyamuni  on  Nirvdna.  459 

tliey  also  deny  its  positive  objective  reality. 
According  to  them,  the  soul  enjoys  in  Nirvana 
neither  existence  nor  non-existence,  it  is 
neither  eternal  nor  non-eternal,  neither  anni- 
hilated nor  non-annihilated.  Nirvana  is  to 
them  a  state  of  which  nothing  can  be  said, 
to  which  no  attributes  can  be  given ;  it  is  al- 
together an  abstract,  devoid  alike  of  all  posi- 
tive  and   negative   qualities.  * 

As  it  was  found  necessary  to  invent  a  ter- 
restrial paradise  to  suit  the  material  aspiration 
of  the  people,  so  it  was  imperative  to  develop 
out  of  the  extreme  transcendentalism  of  the 
Mahiyana  school,  a  system  which  should  ap- 
peal to  their  superstitious  materialism.  Like 
the  Jews  of  old,  they  were  eager  after  signs, 
and  self-interest  made  their  spiritual  rulers 
nothing  loth  to  grant  them  their  desire.  From 
the  mountains  and  monasteries  came  men  who 
claimed  to  possess  the  elixir  of  immortality, 
and  proclaimed  themselves  adepts  in  witchcraft 
and  sorcery.  By  magic  incantations  they  exor- 
cised evil  spirits,  and  dissipated  famine,  pesti- 
lence, and  disease.  By  the  exercise  of  their 
supernatural    powers    they    rescued    souls   from 

♦"The  Chinese  Recorder."'    Vol.  iii.  No.  i. 


460  The  Religions  of  China. 

hell,  and  arrested  pain  and  death.  In  the  ser- 
vices of  the  church  they  added  ritual  to  ritual, 
and  surrounded  with  tawdry  ceremonial  the 
worship  of  their  multiplied  images.  By  such 
means  they  won  their  way  among  the  people, 
and  even  sternly  orthodox  Confucianists  make 
use  of  their  services  to  chant  the  liturgies  of 
the   dead. 

While  that  inexorable  taskmaster,  Supersti- 
tion,  compels  even  the  wise  and  the  learned 
to  pay  their  homage  to  folly,  there  is  scarcely 
an  educated  Chinaman  who  would  not  indig- 
nantly repudiate  the  imputation  of  being  a 
follower  of  Buddha;  and  though  the  com- 
mon people  throng  the  temples  to  buy  charms 
and  consult  astrologers,  they  yet  thoroughly  de- 
spise both  the  priests  and  the  religion  they 
profess.  Buddhism  has  after  all  been  a  bless- 
ing rather  than  a  curse  in  China.  It  has,  to 
a  certain  extent,  lifted  the  mind  of  the  people 
from  the  too  exclusive  consideration  of  mun- 
dane affairs,  to  the  contemplation  of  a  future 
state.  It  has  taught  them  to  value  more 
highly  purity  of  life;  to  exercise  self-constraint 
and  to  forget  self;  and  to  practise  love  and 
charity    towards   their   neighbors. 


A    CHINESE    MAHOMEDAN 


The  Three  Q-reat  Sects.  463 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen 
that  no  clearly  defined  line  of  demarcation 
separates  the  three  great  sects  of  China.  Each 
has  borrowed  from  the  others,  until  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  there  are  to  be  found  any  pure 
Confucianists,  pure  Buddhists,  or  pure  Taouists. 
Confucianism  has  provided  the  moral  basis  on 
which  the  national  character  of  the  Chinese 
rests,  and  Buddhism  and  Taouism  have  sup- 
plied the  supernatural  elements  wanting  in 
that  system.  Speaking  generally,  the.  religion 
of  China  is  a  medley  of  the  three  great  sectSy, 
which  are  now  so  closely  interlaced  that  it. 
is  impossible  either  to  classify,  localize,  or 
enumerate   the   adherents   of  each  creed. 

The  only  other  religion  of  importance  in^ 
China  is  Mahomedanism,  which  is  confined! 
to  the  southwestern  and  northwestern  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  but  since  the  suppression 
of  the  Panthay  rebellion  in  Yunnan,  there  has 
been  a  gradual  decline  in  the  number  of  the 
followers   of  the   Prophet. 


CHAPTER  XVni. 


THE  LANGUAGE. 


NE  curious  circum- 
stance connected 
with  the  Chinese 
is,  that  though  they 
have  a  great  respect 
for  antiquity,  and 
are  proud  of  their 
writing,  they  liave 
no  clear  account  of 
the  origin  of  their 
written  language. 
As  lias  been  said,  there  is  evidence  to  show  that 
the  Chinese  brought  a  knowledge  of  writing  with 
them  into  China.  If  this  were  not  so,  we  should 
expect  to  find  in  China  inscriptions  in  the 
most  primitive  form  of  writing,  which  was 
hieroglyphic ;    but    no    such    inscriptions    exist, 

464 


M 


The  Chinese  Characters.  466 

showing  that  the  language  had  already  passed 
the  purely  hieroglyphic  stage  before  its  intro- 
duction into  the  country.  Though  the  Chinese 
brought  a  knowledge  of  writing  with  them, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  they  added  to  their 
stock  -of  characters  by  adapting  to  their  own 
purposes  the  rude  lines  and  marks  which 
some  of  the  aborigines  used  to  express  their 
thoughts,  and  of  this  process  we  have  traces 
in  the  accounts  which  the  Chinese  give  of 
the    invention   of   writing. 

The  earliest  combination  of  lines  of  which 
we  hear  in  Chinese  works  is  found  in  the 
eight  diagrams  which  are  said  to  have  been 
drawn  by  Fuh-he  (b.  c.  2852-2737).  These  are 
formed  by  whole  and  broken  lines  drawn  al- 
ternately, and  have  been  made  the  basis  of 
an  ancient  system  of  philosophy  and  divina- 
tion; but  they  have  never  been  read.  They 
bear  no  resemblance  to  Chinese  characters, 
and  therefore  the  statement  made  in  the 
Tsze  heo  peen  of  the  T^oo  shoo  tseih  ching., 
that,  "Fuh-he  imitated  the  Kwei  writing,  and 
made  the  eight  diagrams,"  is  worthy  of  con- 
sideration   in   lieu   of   any   better    derivation    of 

them.     What  was  the    Kwei   writing?    In    Ts'ai 
30 


466  The  Language. 

Yung's  (A.  D.  133-192)  work  on  the  lesser  seal 
characters  he  says: — '*The  Kwei  writing  was 
written  irregularly  and  combwise,  like  a  drag- 
on's scales.  It  hung  down  like  a  dropping 
ear  of  millet,  and  was  as  abstruse  as  the 
tangled  web  of  insects.  Whether  in  combina- 
tion or  not,  it  was  like  drops  of  rain  finely 
drawn  out  and  freezing  as  they  fall.  Seen 
from  a  little  distance  it  looks  like  a  flock 
of  geese  and  swans  wandering  in  a  continu- 
ous line.  However  long  it  is  studied,  its 
intricacies  cannot  be  reckoned.  Seen  further 
off,   its   divisions   cannot   be   distinguished." 

Such  was  the  writing  of  the  Kwei  people, 
who  were  scattered  over  the  district,  part  of 
which  is  now  known  as  the  Province  of 
Honan.  This  tract  of  country  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Hwang-ho,  Yellow  River, 
or,  as  it  used  to  be  called,  Ho,  or  The  river, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Loh  River,  wliich 
empties  itself  into  the  Hd.  Now,  one  of  the 
commonest  expressions  used  in  Chinese  books, 
in  describing  the  origin  of  writing  is,  that 
writing  came  from  the  Loli  (Loh  shoo),  and 
drawings  from  the  Ho  (Ho  t'oo).  The  locality 
from    which   these    were    derived    is,   therefore, 


The  Kwei  Hieroglyphics.  467 

sufficiently     plainly    indicated ;    the   next    ques- 
tion  is,    Who    were    their   authors? 

By  common  consent,  Chinese  writers  declare 
that  Ts'ang  Hieli,  a  minister  of  Hwang-te  (b. 
C.  2697-2597),  invented  writing,  but  we  are 
also  told  that  Ts'ang  Hieh  imitated  the  col- 
ored writing  of  the  Kwer  of  Loh,  and  devel- 
oped from  it  his  characters.  This  statement 
is  repeated  over  and  over  again  in  varying 
forms.  Ts'ang  Hieh,  we  are  told,  looking  up 
to  heaven  and  observing  the  constellations, 
and  down  to  the  earth  and  examining  the 
Kwei  writing  and  the  footprints  of  birds,  in- 
vented written  characters.  According  to 
tradition,  he  was  a  resident  in  what  is  now 
Honan,  and  what  more  natural,  therefore,  than 
that  he  should  have  imitated  the  rude  attempts 
at  writing  carved  by  the  Kwei  aborigines  on 
the  banks  of  the  Ho  and  Loh,  and  moulded 
them  into  characters.  Though  the  Kwei 
hieroglyphics  were  rude,  they  were  yet  suffi- 
ciently explicit  to  be  used  to  record  events, 
since,  as  we  are  told,  during  the  reign  of  Yaou, 
when  the  Yu6-chang  people  visited  the  court, 
they  brought  with  them  a  sacred  tortoise 
(Kwei),    which     was     said     to     have     been     a 


468  The  Language. 

thousand  years  old,  upon  whose  back  was  in- 
scribed a  legend,  which  contained  a  narrative 
of  events  from  the  creation  downwards.  Yaou, 
it  is  said,  ordered  this  primitive  history  to 
be  transcribed,  and  called  it  the  "  Kwei  Annals." 
Again  of  tlie  same  writing  Ts'ai  Yung,  in 
his  work  on  the  large  seal  characters,  says :  — 
"The  oldest  characters  were  those  of  the 
Yu6-chang  people.  They  consisted  of  a  thou- 
sand varieties,  and  of  ten  thousand  shapes 
either  resembling  dragons  or  fishes.  There 
was  no  phrase  which  did  not  occur  in  them, 
nor  was  there  anything  which  was  not  men- 
tioned  in    them." 

We  know,  therefore,  on  the  faith  of  Chinese 
writers  of  antiquity,  that  the  Kwei  used 
characters,  and  that  these  were  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Loh  and  of  the  Ho.  We  are 
further  told,  in  the  Shih  chow  ke,  that  when 
Yu  regulated  the  waters,  he  employed  work- 
men to  carve  an  inscription  on  a  rock,  and 
that  beneath  this  inscription  were  tadpole 
characters  which  were  not  such  as  were  writ- 
ten by  Chinamen.  Tiie  JKwang  poh  with  che 
tells    the    same    story. 

The    probability     is,    therefore,     that     Ts'ang 


Phonetic  Writing.  469 

Hieh,  or  one  of  tlie  early  Chinese,  did  adopt 
as  his  own  the  Kwei  characters  which  he 
found  on  rocks  and  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
very  possibly  Fuh-he's  diagrams  may  have 
owed  their  existence  to  the  same  origin  ; 
but  such  characters  merely  supplemented  the 
writing  which  the  Chinese  originally  brought 
with  them  into  China,  and  we  may  dismiss, 
therefore,  as  legendary,  the  statement  that  the 
writing  ever  went  through  the  primitive  hiero- 
glyphic stage  in  China.  That  had  long  passed 
away,  and  had  been  succeeded  by  a  system 
of  phonetic  writing,  by  which  the  component 
parts  of  the  characters  were  so  arranged  as 
to  give  the  sound  of  the  words,  which  in 
those  days  were  as  often  as  not  polysyllabic. 
By  degrees,  however,  as  the  Chinese  colonies 
advanced  further  and  further  into  the  country, 
and  separated  themselves  more  and  more  from 
the  headquarters  of  the  race,  dialects  sprung 
up,  differing  phonetic  values  were  given  to  the 
characters  and  their  component  parts,  and 
consequently  things  were  either  called  by  dif- 
ferent names  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
or  the  characters  representing  them  under- 
went  a   series   of    gradual    modifications   as   the 


470  The  Language. 

origiual  pronunciation  of  their  parts  changed. 
Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  She 
Chow,  the  minister  of  Seuen  Wang  (b.  c. 
827-781),  attempted  to  reimpose  a  uniform 
system  of  writing,  and  for  this  purpose  in- 
vented the  "  large  seal  characters "  with  which 
his  name  will  be  for  ever  associated.  The 
project,  however,  was  only  partly  successful. 
The  inevitable  laws  which  govern  the  growth 
of  language  are  not  to  be  confined  within 
arbitary  limits,  and  the  same  process  of  change 
which  had  metamorphosed  the  Koo  wSn,  or 
ancient  writing,  wrought  havoc  also  with  the 
large  seal  characters.  This  was  essentially  a 
period  of  change.  The  feudal  system,  which, 
until  then  had  prevailed  in  the  country,  was 
fast  disappearing  to  make  way  for  an  empire. 
The  right  of  the  sovereigns  of  Chow  to  the 
supremacy  among  the  states  was  openly  ques- 
tioned by  feudatories,  who  sought  vi  et  armis 
to  usurp  their  throne.  Loyalty  had  ceased  to 
exist,  and  might  was  made  the  measure  of 
right.  "  The  nobles,"  says  Heu  Shin,  in  his 
preface  to  the  Shwo  wan,  "ruled  by  violence, 
and  ceased  to  be  controlled  by  the  king;  they 
hated   rights     and     music,    and    did     injury    to 


The  Time  of  the  Empire.  471 

them.  Departing  from  the  canonical  records, 
they  divided  the  empire  into  seven  states. 
They  changed  tlie  measurements  of  the  arable 
fields;  they  changed  the  wheel-gauge  of  the 
carriages;  they  changed  the  code  of  the  stat- 
utes and  commands;  they  changed  the  fashions 
of  clothes  and  caps;  and  they  changed  the 
sounds  of  the  words  and  the  forms  of  the 
characters." 

On  the  establishment  of  the  empire  under 
the  Ts'in  Dynasty,  Le  Sze  attempted  again  to 
introduce  a  fixed  system  of  writing,  and  one 
which  should  at  the  same  time  be  less  cum- 
brous than  the  large  seal  characters.  These 
new  characters,  which  were  known  as  Seaou 
chuen,  or  "Small  Seal"  characters,  were  less 
complicated  and  not  square  like  the  older 
forms ;  but  as  public  business  and  the  corre- 
sponding necessity  for  writing  increased,  the 
Seaou  chuen  was  voted  too  elaborate,  and  the 
modified  form  of  character  called  Le  shoo  was 
introduced  in  its  stead.  In  the  Le  shoo  a 
tendency  is  observable  to  convert  the  curves 
of  the  Seaou  chuen  into  angular  strokes,  and 
the  shapes  of  some  characters,  in  obedience  to 
the    changes    which    had    taken   place     in   their 


472  The  Language. 

pronunciation,  underwent  modifications.  To  the 
Le  shoo  and  Tsaou  shoo^  or  "running  hand,'' 
succeeded  the  K'eae  shoo  (the  fourth  centur}) 
of  the   present   day. 

Chinamen  are  ignorant  of  the  science  of 
philology,  and  lack  that  power  of  critical  ob- 
,  servation  which  might  enable  them  to  arrive 
at  the  true  history  of  their  written  characters. 
Their  tendency  has  been,  therefore,  to  deal  only 
with  their  later  forms,  and  these  they  have 
classified  and  arranged  in  the  six  following 
classes: — First,  Seang  king,  or  hieroglyphics, 
which  are  the  primitive  characters  of  the  lan- 
guage. Second,  Che  sze,  or  characters  intended 
to  represent  ideas  to  the  mind  by  the  posi- 
tion of  their  parts.  Thus  a  character  com- 
posed of  parts  representing  the  sun  above  a 
straiglit  line  stands  for  the  dawn.  Third,  Hwuy 
e,  or  signs  formed  by  writing  two  or  more 
significant  characters  to  suggest  a  new  idea. 
For  instance,  the  character  Sin,  "sincere,"  is 
made  up  of  the  signs  for  "a  man"  and  "woi-ds," 
a  collocation  of  ideas  which  at  least  speaks 
well  for  the  theoretical  morality  of  the  people. 
Another  character  in  this  class  is  Ming, 
"brightness,"   which    is    composed   of    a   combi- 


Six  Linguistic  FormB.  473 

nation  of  the  signs  for  a  star  and  tlie  moon, 
and  is  identical  with  the  modern  Turkish  im- 
perial emblem.  Chinese  .writers  say  that  the 
smaller  character  of  the  two  is  that  of  the 
sun,  but  they  liave  forgotten  that  in  the  Koo 
wan  the  characters  for  sun  and  star  were  iden- 
tical in  form ;  and  the  fact  of  its  being  com- 
pletely overshadowed  by  the  moon  is  an  ar- 
gument' against  its  having  been  originally  in- 
tended for  the  greater  light.  Fourth,  Chuen 
choo,  or  characters  which,  being  inverted  either 
in  form  or  sound,  assume  different  meanings. 
Thus  the  character  which,  when  read  Lo  means 
"pleasure,"  means  music  when  pronounced  i/o. 
Fifth,  Kea  tsieh,  or  characters  having  borrowed 
meanings.  As  an  illustration  of  this  class 
Chinese  writers  adduce  the  character  She^  an 
arrow,  which,  from  the  straight  course  of  an 
arrow,  has  come  to  signify  "  direct,"  "  right," 
"  a  word  spoken  to  the  point."  Sixth,  Keae 
shincf,  or  Phonetic.  The  adoption  of  these 
characters  was  a  cardinal  feature  in  the  change 
effected  in  the  writing  by  She  Chow.  It  is 
seldom  in  the  history  of  nations  that  a  writ- 
ing is  found  to  deteriorate,  and  nothing  proves 
more   conclusively    that   the    Chinese    characters 


474  The  Language. 

were  no  invention  of  the  people  themselves, 
than  the  fact  that  the  first  time  they  at- 
tempted a  modification  of  them  they  took  a 
step  backwards.  Up  to  the  time  of  Slie  Chow 
a  well-defined  and  elaborate  system  of  syllabic 
writing  had  been  in  vogue,  but  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese  reformer  this  retrograded  in 
the  direction  of  ideographic  writing,  and  the 
Keae  shirig  characters  were  brought  into  ex- 
istence. These,  speaking  generally,  consist  of 
two  parts  —  a  phonetic  element  and  an  ideo- 
graphic character.  The  ideographic  characters 
in  combination  with  their  phonetics  form  an 
exact  parallel  with  many  Egyptian  and  Ass}-- 
rian  ideophoneties.  I  have  been  favored  by 
Doctor  Birch,  of  the  British  Museum,  with  an 
example  in  Egyptian,  showing  precisely  the 
same  formation  in  the  composition  of  the  char- 
acters and  in  the  respective  value  of  their 
parts,  as  is  seen  in  the  Chinese.  Speaking  of 
Assyrian  hieroglyphics,  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson 
says,  "  Certain  classes  of  words  have  a  sign 
prefixed  or  suffixed  to  them,  more  commonly 
the  former,  by  which  their  general  character 
is  indicated.  The  names  of  gods,  of  men,  of 
cities,'  of  tribes,   of    wild    animals,   of    domestic 


Significant  Suffixes. 


476 


animals,  of  metals,  of  months,  of  the  points  of 
the  compass,  and  of  dignities  are  thus  accom- 
panied.   The  sign  prefixed  or  suffixed  may  have 


A  CHINESE  TEACHER  AND  PUPIL. 


originally  represented  a  word ;  but,  when  used 
in  the  way  here  spoken  of,  it  is  believed  that 
it   was  not  sounded,    but   served   simply   to   in- 


476  The  Language. 

dicate  to  the  reader  the  sort  of  word  which 
was  placed   before   it." 

Marking,  then,  the  forces  of  the  two  parts 
of  the  Keae  Shing  characters,  it  is  easy  to 
imagine  the  way  in  which  She  Chow  set  to 
work  to  modify  existing  characters,  and  to  in- 
vent new  ones.  We  may  suppose  for  instance, 
that  a  tree  to  which  he  wished  to  give  a  name 
on  paper  was  known  to  him  colloquially  as 
Ma.  He  would  then,  in  the  first  place,  choose 
a  common  phonetic  possessing  that  sound,  very 
possibly  the  hieroglyphic  wa,  "a  horse,"  and 
would  combine  with  it  the  ideographic  charac- 
ter muh^  meaning  "  wood."  The  reader  would 
at  once  recognize  that  the  new  character  should 
be  read  as  ma,  and  the  ideographic  character 
prefixed  would  make  him  aware  that  it  was 
either  the  name  of  a  tree  or  of  something 
made   of  wood. 

These  ideographic  signs,  with  the  addition  of 
a  few  others,  have  been  taken  by  lexico- 
graphers as  offering  the  best  means  of  classi- 
fying the  characters  of  the  language.  Two 
hundred  and  fourteen  of  such  signs  have  been 
chosen  (one  or  more  of  which  enter  into  the 
composition    of    everj'     character    in    Chinese), 


A  Cumbersome  /System.  477 

under  which  to  arrange  the  fifty  thousand  char- 
acters, more  or  less,  of  which  the  language 
consists.  As  the  language  is  without  an  alpha- 
bet, some  such  system  is  necessary,  and  this 
one  probably  answers  as  well  as  any  other. 
Most  of  these  radicals  or  determinatives,  as 
they  have  been  variously  called,  being  primi- 
tive characters,  are  hieroglyphics,  and  include, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  "  the  most  re- 
markuble  objects  of  nature,  such  as  the  sun, 
moon,  a  river,  a  mountain,  fire,  water,  earth, 
wood,  a  stone,  etc.  ;  the  chief  parts  of  the 
human  bod}',  as  the  head,  the  heart,  the  hand, 
the  foot,  the  eye,  the  ear,  etc. ;  the  principal 
parts  of  a  house,  as  the  roof,  the  door,  etc. ;  domestic 
animals,  such  as  the  sheep,  the  cow,  the  horse, 
the  dog,  etc.  ;  the  primary  relations  of  society, 
as  father,  mother,  son,  daughter,  etc.  ;  qualities, 
such  as  great,  small,  crooked,  high,  low,  long, 
etc. ;  and  actions,  such  as  to  see,  to  speak,  to 
walk,  to  run,  to  stop,  to  enter,  to  follow,  etc. ; 
They  are  thus  admirably  adapted  to  form 
generic  terms,  and  this  is  the  part  they 
play  in  composition."  In  the  dictionaries  the 
characters  are  arranged  under  each  radical,  in 
order   of  the    number   of  strokes-  of   which    the 


478  The  Language. 

part  combined  with  the  radical  is  composed. 
For  example,  under  the  radical  muli^  "wood," 
the  first  character  is  one  in  which  onl}'  one 
stroke  is  added  to  the  radical,  and  the  last 
consists  of  twentj-two  strokes  besides  the 
radical. 

That  such  a  cumbersome  system  of  writing 
should  have  remained  unimproved  argues  a 
strange  but  characteristic  inabilit\-  of  the  people 
to  advance.  And  this  is  noticeable,  not  only  in 
the  writing,  but  in  every  institution,  and  in 
every  branch  of  knowledge.  They  have  ad- 
vanced up  to  a  certain  point  —  a  point  to 
which  they  have  been  led  by  others  —  and  be- 
yond this  they  are  unable  to  go..  On  their 
first  arrival  in  China,  they  brought  with  them 
a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the 
West,  but,  during  all  the  centuries  they  have 
lived  in  China,  they  had  added  nothing  to 
the  knowledge  the}^  thus  possessed.  If  they 
have  moved  either  way,  it  has  rather  been 
backwards,  so  that  their  reverence  for  the  wis- 
dom of  the  ancients  is  a  genuine,  thougli  mel- 
ancholy, confession  of  their  national  incompe- 
tence. 

Though   the   characters   in    the   language    are 


Double  Words.  479 

numerous  almost  beyond  belief,  amounting,  as 
has  been  said,  to  fifty  thousand  in  all,  the  sounds 
they  represent  are  not  numerous  in  proportion. 
The  various  dialects  differ  in  the  number 
of  vocables  they  each  possess,  but  the  rich- 
est, that  of  Canton,  contains  only  about  seven 
hundred  sounds.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
frequently  a  number  of  objects  and  ideas  are 
expressed  by  the  voice  by  the  same  sound, 
though,  when  written  on  paper,  they  are  each 
represented  by  a  distinct  and  appropriate  char- 
acter. The  confusion  with  which  such  a  .sys- 
tem is  fraught  is  mitigated  somewhat  by  the 
constant  use  in  conversation  of  double  words, 
in  some  cases  bearing  the  same,  or  nearly  the 
same  meaning,  and  in  others,  being  made  up, 
when  the  word  used  expresses  a  noun  substan- 
tive, by  combination  with  a  classifying  word 
pointing  generally  to  the  leading  characteristic 
of  the  object.  "  These  classifiers  bear  some 
resemblance  to  our  expressions  herd,  head,  Jleet, 
troop  ....  For  example,  the  word  pa,  'to 
grasp  with  the  hand,'  is  used  as  a  classifier 
to  precede  anj^thing  which  is  held  in  the  hand, 
such  as  a  knife,  a  spoon,  a  hatchet,  etc.  In- 
stead of   expressing  a   knife  by  yih   taou,  which 


480  The  Language. 

might  either  mean  a  knife,  a  small  boot,  or 
a  fringe,  the  clas:<ifier  is  introduced  to  show 
which  taou  is  meant,  and  a  speaker  would 
say  yih  pa  taou,  literally,  'a  grasped  knife.' 
In  like  manner  keen,  a  'space,'  is  used  as  a 
classifier  for  houses  and  enclosures ;  kan,  '  a 
root,'   for   trees,   poles,  clubs,    etc.  ;  and  so  on." 

It  is  difficult  to  point  definitely  to  the  origin 
of  the  double  words  referred  to  above.  It  is 
possible  that  they  may  be  survivals  of  poly- 
syllabic words  which,  owing  to  phonetic  decay, 
have  lost  their  full  expression  in  the  charac- 
ters which  represent  them  on  paper;  but, 
whatever  their  origin,  they  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose in  defining  the  meaning  of  the  speaker, 
and  in  pointing  out  which  of  the  many  words 
having  the  same  sound  he  intends  should 
be  understood.  For  instance,  if  a  Chinaman 
were  writing  the  verb  "  to  see,"  he  would 
write  keen;  but  if  he  were  using  the  word  in 
conversation,  he  would  say  kan  keen,  which 
would  mean,  literal)}',  "to  look  and  see,"  by 
which  combination  he  indicates  that  keen,  "  to 
see,"  is   the    keen    which    he    means. 

There  are  other  combinations  of  characters, 
which   are   unmistakably  representations  of  poly- 


Compound  Words.  481 

syllabic  words,  whether  native  or  foreign,  and 
a  close  examination  of  any  of  the  dialects 
shows  that  these  words  are  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  entire  number.  In  Pekinese 
these  polysyllabic  words  are  very  numerous, 
partly  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  introduction 
of  Mauchu  and  Mongolian  words  into  the 
vocabulary,  but  there  are,  also,  quite  enough 
native  polysyllabic  words  to  redeem  the  spoken 
language,  at  least,  from  the  charge  of  mono- 
syllabism.  A  study  of  a  few  pages  of  Sir 
Thomas  Wade's  TzTi  erh  chi  is  instructive  on 
this    point. 

There  are,  however,  other  combinations  of 
characters  beside  those  just  mentioned,  which 
often  add  considerably  to  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
lating Chinese  texts.  Such  are  compound  words 
composed  of  two  or  more  characters,  having 
traditionally  acquired  meanings  to  which  the 
characters  used  to  express  them  afford  no  clue. 
For  instance,  we  find  the  expression  Fu  ma, 
which,  translated  literally,  would  mean  either 
"  to  help  a  horse,"  or  "  a  helping  horse,"  but 
which  is  invariably  used  to  denote  "  the  son- 
in-law  of  the  emperor."  Or,  again,  the  combi- 
nation Heven  tang,  the  first  character  of  which 
31 


482  The  Language. 

the  dictionaries  tell  us,  means  "  a  kind  of 
onion,"  and  the  second  "  a  hall,"  but  together 
they  have  acquired  the  signification  of  "a 
mother,"  from  the  facts  that  married  women 
carr}^  about  them  roots  of  the  Seuen^  and  that 
the  hall  is  the  proper  place  for  the  mistress 
of  the  house.  The  same  remark  applies  to  a 
number  of  single  characters,  which,  from  asso- 
ciation of  ideas,  have  assumed  meanings  to 
which  their  primary  significations  bear  no  ap- 
parent resemblance.  Such  a  word  is  yen,  "a 
swallow,"  which,  by  a  curious  coincidence, 
means  also  "to  swallow."  A  number  of  others 
might  be  quoted  having  "a  plurality  of  signi- 
fications which  depend  upon  their  combination 
with  other  characters,  upon  the  branch  of 
science  of  which  the  work  treats,  as  also  upon 
the   period    when   the   same   was   written." 

Turning  to  the  language,  we  find  that  it 
bears  all  the  characteristics  of  an  Ural-Altaic 
origin.  As  in  all  such  languages,  so  in  Chi- 
nese the  subject  in  every  sentence  comes  first, 
then  the  verb,  which  is  followed  by  the  com- 
plement direct  and  the  complement  indirect. 
In  the  same  way  every  word  which  defines  or 
modifies    another  invariably   precedes    it.     Thus 


Chinese  Polysyllabic.  483 

the  adjective  precedes  the  substantive,  tlie  ad- 
verb the  verb,  the  genitive  the  word  which 
governs  it,  and  the  preposition  the  word  gov- 
erned  by   it. 

In  speaking  of  the  language  we  must  be 
understood  to  be  speaking  of  it  as  we  now 
find  it.  Even  at  the  present  day  it  is,  as  has 
been  shown,  less  purely  a  monosyllabic  lan- 
guage than  has  generally  been  supposed,  but 
there  are  evidences  that  in  bygone  ages  it  was 
polysyllabic.  We  find,  for  instance,  many  words 
witli  aspirates  in  them,  which  point  to  the  loss 
of  a  syllable.  For  example,  such  a  word  as 
K'an  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  in  all 
probability  it  was  originally  Kalian.  And  it 
must  be  remembered  that  while  there  is  no 
example  on  record  of  a  monosyllabic  language, 
we  are  surrounded  by  evidences  of  phonetic 
decay  in  our  own  as  well  as  in  every  other 
language. 

For  instance,  the  g  in  the  German  words 
hagel  and  regen  disappears  in  our  hail  and  rain. 
In  Greek  also  the  o  falls  out  in  the  genitive 
of  such  neuter  nouns  in  o?  as  yeyog,  -{BVBaoq^ 
contracted  to  fevovi.  Again,  in  the  Romance 
language,  the   elision   of  d  and  t  is  very  com- 


484  The  Language. 

mon  ;  e.  g.,  French  pere^  mere^  for  pater  and 
mater ;    epee   for   espede^  etc. 

Chinese  is,  then,  a  language  which,  like 
many  others,  has  suffered  loss  through  phonetic 
decay,  and,  as  we  now  see  it,  it  is  equally 
poverty-stricken  in  a  grammatical  sense.  It  is 
without  inflexions  or  even  agglutination,  and 
there  is  nothing,  therefore,  to  mark  the  gram- 
matical value  of  a  word  except  its  position  in 
a  sentence,  since  very  few  words  belong  abso- 
lutely to  one  part  of  speech.  The  result  is 
that  the  same  word  is  often  capable  of  play- 
ing the  part  of  a  substantive,  an  adjective,  a 
verb,  or  an  adverb ;  but  when  tins  is  so  it 
not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  transition 
from  one  part  of  speech  to  another  is  marked 
by   a    change   of  tone   in    the  pronunciation. 

To  illustrate  these  rules  and  this  peculiarity 
we  will  take  the  word  haou,  which  means  "  to 
love,"  "good,"  "excellent,"  "goodness,"  "well," 
etc.  If  then,  following  the  rules  laid  down 
above,  we  find  it  in  such  a  connection  as  the 
following,  Kwei  keen  chih  kea  che  haou,  we 
recognize  it  at  once  as  a  substantive,  since, 
were  it  an  adjective,  it  would  be  followed  by 
a   substantive  ;     were    it    a   verb,   it   would    be 


The  Different  Tones.  485 

followed  by  its  complement,  and  also  because 
it  follows  the  substantive  chih  kea^  to  which  is 
added  the  particle  che^  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive case.  The  sentence  should  then  be 
translated  kwei  keen^  "  to  peep  and  see,"  chih 
kea  che,  "  the  apartments,"  haou,  "  excellence  ; " 
but  in  the  sentence,  Joo,  haou  haou  sih^  we 
see  by  the  position  of  the  two  haous  that  the 
first  must  be  a  verb,  and  that  the  second 
must  be  an  adjective,  since  it  is  followed  by 
a  substantive,  with  which  it  forms  the  direct 
complement  of  the  verb.  The  meaning  of  the 
sentence  then  is  Jbo,  "  as  when,"  haou.,  "  we 
love,"  haou  sih,  "  excellent  beauty ; "  but,  in 
reading  this  sentence,  the  dictionaries  tell  us 
that,  having  recognized  the  first  haou  as  the 
verb  "  to  love,"  it  must  be  pronounced  in  a 
falling  tone  of  voice,  whereas,  when  it  occurs 
as  an  adjective,  a  substantive,  or  an  adverb, 
it   is   sounded   in   an    ascending   tone. 

These  tones,  which  add  so  greatly  to  the 
difficulty  of  learning  to  speak  Chinese,  vary  in 
number  in  almost  every  dialect,  from  the  four 
in  Pekinese  to  the  eight  in  Cantonese.  In 
his  introduction  to  the  Tzii  erh  chi.  Sir  Thomas 
Wade,   speaking   of  the   four   tones    in    use    in 


486  The  Language. 

Peking,  says :  "  In  the  first  tone,  the  upper 
even,  it  may  be  enough  to  observe,  the  vowel 
sound,  whether  the  word  be  pronounced  quickly 
or  slowly,  proceeds  without  elevation  or  de- 
pression. ...  In  the  second  tone,  the 
lower  even,  the  voice  is  jerked,  much  as  when 
in  English  we  utter  words  expressive  of  doubt 
and  astonishment.  In  the  third  tone,  the  as- 
cending, the  sound  becomes  nearly  as  abrupt, 
but  more  resembling  what  with  us  would  in- 
dicate indignation  or  denial.  In  the  fourth 
tone,  the  receding,  the  vowel  sound  is  pro- 
longed,   as   it  were,  regretfully The 

sounds  of  a  syllable  repeated  in  the  above 
order  form  a  sort  of  chime  which  can  only' 
be    learnt  by   the    ear,     but    which    it    is    not 

difficult    to    learn We    will    hazard 

but  one  parallel  for  better  or  for  worse.  Let 
A,  B,  C,  D  be  four  persons  engaged  in  con- 
versation, and  a  question  be  put  by  B,  re- 
garding the  fate  of  some  one  known  to  them 
all.  I  have  supposed  A  to  assert  his  death  in 
the  first  tone ;  B  to  express  his  apprehension 
that  he  has  been  killed  in  the  second  tone ; 
C  to  scout  this  suspicion  in  the  third ;  and 
D    to    confirm   it    sorrowfully   in    the  fourth : 


Cantonese  Tones.  487 


1st  tone. 

A. 

Dead. 

2d  tone. 

B. 

Killed? 

3d  tone. 

C. 

No! 

4th  tone. 

D. 

Yes. 

In  Cantonese,  in  addition  to  these  tones  are 
four  others  having  the  same  "chime,"  but  on 
a  lower  scale.  Many  explanations  have  been 
offered  for  the  existence  of  the  tones  in 
Chinese,  and,  though  they  now  undoubtedly 
serve  the  very  useful  purpose  of  distinguishing 
the  meanings  intended  by  the  speaker  when 
making  use  of  the  same  syllable  to  express 
different  things,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that 
they  were  invented  with  that  object.  In  no 
language  in  the  world  has  such  a  refinement 
ever  been  attempted ;  and  that  they  are  of 
natural  growth  aiid  of  no  artificial  origin  is 
shown  by  the  facts  that  they  vary  in  different 
dialects,  that  they  are  constantly  changing,  and 
that  they  may  be  said  to  follow  the  fortunes 
of  the  initial  and  final  consonants  of  the  words. 
The  most  reasonable  explanation  of  their  being 
is,  then,  that  they  are  the  natural  compensa- 
tions necessary  to  counterbalance  the  contrac- 
tions caused  in  the  simple  and  compound 
vocables    of    the    language    by    that     muscular 


488  The  Language. 

sloth  which  belongs  to  the  Chinese  people  and 
the  races  in  the  extreme  East  more  or  less 
related  to  them,  as  well  as  to  some  of  the 
African  tribes.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that, 
wherever  tones  are  found,  there  exist  also  ob- 
vious   signs    of  phonetic   decay. 

In  the  absence  of  all  inflexion,  it  is,  as 
may  be  imagined,  necessary  to  indicate  gender 
and  number  by  prefixes  or  affixes.  The  word 
e/m,  for  example,  is  man  in  its  generic  sense, 
and  to  distinguish  man  from  woman  it  is  nec- 
essary to  prefix  nan,  male,  in  the  one  case, 
and  nil,  female,  in  the  other.  In  the  same 
way,  Kung,  "  noble "  or  "  superior,"  is  prefixed 
to  denote  the  male  of  birds,  and  moo,  mother, 
to  indicate  the  female.  Number  is  not  so 
definitely  marked,  and  as  often  as  not  the 
context  has  to  supply  the  information  whether 
one    or   more   is   meant. 

The  numerals  are  very  simple,  seventeen  sup- 
plying all  the  combinations  necessary  to  reckon 
any  number.  They  begin  with  yih  "  one,"  urh, 
"two,"  san,  "tln-ee,"  sze  "four,"  ivoo,  "five," 
luh,  "  six,"  tseih,  "  seven,"  pa,  "  eiglit,"  Jcew, 
"nine,"  shih,"  "ten."  With  these  numerals 
every    number    up    to    a    hundred    is    counted. 


Compliments  in  Conversation.  489 

Thus  ten  one  is  "eleven,"  and  so  on  to  twenty,, 
which  is  expressed  by  "  two  tens,"  etc. ;  pih^  is 
"  a  hundred,"  tseen,  "  a  thousand,"  loan^  "  ten 
thousand,"  2//A,  "one  hundred  thousand,"  chaou^ 
"  a  million,"  kinff^  "  ten  millions,"  and  kae  "  a 
hundred  millions."  The  last  four  are  now  very 
seldom  employed.  The  character  wan,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  derives  its  numerical 
significance  from  its  originally  meaning  a 
"  bee,"  the  numbers  in  the  swarms  of  these 
insects   being   past   counting. 

As  in  all  Oriental  languages,  the  complimen- 
tary and  self-depreciating  style  of  conversation 
used  in  Chinese,  leads  to  the  adoption  of  a 
vast  number  of  equivalents  for  the  personal 
pronouns.  In  the  personal  pronouns  themselves 
no  distinction  of  gender  is  made.  Colloquially 
the  third  person,  whether  man,  woman,  or 
thing,  is  spoken  of  as  Ta,  Ne  is  the  second 
person,  and  Ngo  the  first.  But  in  polite  con- 
versation it  would  be  considered  a  breach  of 
etiquette  either  to  address  one's  interlocutor  as 
Ne,  or  to  speak  of  one's  self  as  Ngo.  Should 
your  friend  not  be  an  office-holder,  he  must  be 
addressed  as  "Master,"  or  "Elder,"  or  "Your 
Honour."     Should   he    be   in    the    junior    ranks 


490  The  Language. 

of  the  mandarinate,  the  law  provides  that  he 
must  be  addressed  as  Laou  yeh^  or  "  Old 
Father."  If  he  be  above  a  certain  rank,  he 
becomes  Ta  laou  yeh,  "  Great  Old  Father ; " 
and  the  title  of  Ta  jin^  "  Your  Excellency," 
belongs  by  right  to  officials  in  the  higher 
grades.  Meanwhile,  for  Ngo  is  substituted 
such  humble  expressions  as  "The  little  one," 
"  The  mean  one,"  "  The  stupid  one,"  or  "  The 
cheap  one."  The  same  kind  of  phraseology  is 
employed  in  the  sense  of  possessive  personal 
pronouns.  All  that  belongs  to  another  is  "  Hon- 
orable," ''  Worshipful,"  or  "  August."  "  Where 
is  your  honourable  abode  ? "  asks  one  stranger 
of  another.  "  My  unworthy  dwelling  is  at  such 
and  such  a  place,"  is  the  reply.  Another's 
house  is  "an  illustrious  mansion;"  one's  own 
is  "  a  vile  hovel."  One's  friend's  father  is 
"  your  honoured  noble  one,"  and '  his  mother 
"  your  honoured  loving  one ; "  but  here  re- 
spect for  parents  steps  in  and  prevents  the 
use  of  any  depreciator}'^  terms  being  applied 
to  one's  own  father  or  mother.  One  of  the 
commonest  complimentary  questions  put  to  an 
acquaintance  is,  "  What  is  your  honourable 
age  ? "   and    "  I    congratulate  you  on  having  ac- 


The  Imperial  We.  491 

quired  wealth,"  is  a  usual  form  of  salutation  to 
a  passing  stranger  on  the  road  regardless  of 
liis   possible   rags   and   tatters. 

Quite  separate  and  apart  from  all  other  forms 
of  the  first  personal  pronoun  is  the  expression 
chiriy  which  is  reserved  especially  for  the  em- 
peror's use,  and  has  been  the  imperial  "  We " 
since  the  time  of  Che  Hwang-te  of  the  Ts'in 
Dynasty  (b.  c.  221) ;  but  not  always  does  he 
feel  himself  entitled  to  use  this  imperial  "  We." 
In  times  of  national  misfortune  he  chooses  to 
believe  that  his  own  remissness  is  the  cause 
of  the  evils  which  have  overtaken  the  coun- 
try, and  then  it  is  customary  for  him  to  des- 
ignate himself  Kwa  jin^  "  The  unworthy  man." 
In  addressing  the  emperor,  the  ministers  speak 
of  themselves  as  "  Slaves,"  or  "  We  who  are 
beneath  the  steps  of  the  throne,""  in  reference 
to  the  position  they  are  accustomed  to  occupy 
when  receiving  imperial  orders.  "•  Prostrate, 
they  beseech  that  the  imperial  glance  may  fall " 
on  their  memorials,  and  Wan  suy  yeh^  "  Lord 
of  ten  thousand  years,"  is  one  of  the  common 
epithets  applied  to  His  Majesty.  In  letter  and 
despatch  writing  complimentary  expressions  find 
their   fullest   development,   and  if  the  recipients 


492  The  Language. 

of  such  documents  realized  the  wishes  expressed 
for  their  happiness  and  advantage,  their  "abun- 
dant prosperity  would  flourish  and  increase," 
"  the  good  fortune  which  follows  on  their  foot- 
steps would  be  increasingly  magnified,"  and 
"length  of  days,  riches,  and  honour  would  be 
their   h>t." 

As  the  verb  in  common  with  every  other 
part  of  speech  is  without  inflexion,  the  force 
of  the  past  and  future  tenses  has  either  to  be 
expressed  by  the  context  or  by  the  addition 
of  certain  prefixes  or  suffixes.  For  example, 
in  the  sentence  Kaou-tsoo  shih  yih  neen  chu 
Chin-he,  "  Kaou-tsoo,  in  the  eleventh  year  (of 
his  reign),  punished  Chin-he,"  with  death,  the 
context  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  verb 
choo  is  in  the  past  tense,  and  no  prefix  or 
suffix  is  necessary.  But  in  the  phrase  Kin  e 
choo  Choo-Leu,  "  Now  he  has  punished  Choo- 
leu  with  death,"  the  verbal  particle  e  is  re- 
quired to  mark  that  tlie  action  is  past,  since 
without  it  the  meaning  might  be  "Now  he 
punishes,  or  will  punish,  Choo  Leu  with  death." 
In  the  literary  stj-^le,  several  other  particles 
are  used  to  express  the  past  tense,  which  may 
be   said   to    resolve  themselves  in  the    colloquial 


Chinese  Punctuation,  493 

to  the  suffixes  leaou  "to  complete,"  and  Kwo 
"to   pass  over." 

In  the  same  way  with  the  future  tense ;  in 
such  a  passage  as  Seen  juh  Kwan  chay  wang 
che,  "  He  who  first  enters  the  Pass  shall  rule 
over  it,"  the  context  sl^ows  us  that  wang 
"  shall  rule "  is  in  the  future  tense ;  but  when 
the  context  fails  to  point  to  the  time  of  the 
action,  the  particle  tseang  "to  take"  is  some- 
times prefixed  to  make  the  meaning  clear,  as 
in  the  sentence  Ngo  tseang  wan  che,  "  I  will 
(tseang)  ask  him."  In  the  colloquial  the  verb 
yaou  "to  want,"  is  prefixed  in  place  of  tseang. 

Bv  similar  devices  the  different  moods  are 
'with  more  or  less  distinctness  indicated,  and 
though  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that,  in 
the  absence  of  added  verbal  particles,  the  mood 
and  tense  of  the  verb  may  be  a  matter  of 
uncertainty,  yet,  speaking  generally,  the  mean- 
ing of  the  writer  becomes  plain  to  the  patient 
student.  Another  difficult}^  is  the  absence  of 
all  punctuation  in  some  Chinese  books ;  but 
even  here  he  is  helped  by  the  use  of  final  par- 
ticles which,  either  as  signs  of  affirmation, 
exclamation,  or  interrogation,  frequently  mark 
the    close    of  a   period 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


THE    LITERATUBE. 


N  the  literature  of  a  civil- 
iy^  ized  country  is  reflected 
the  national  mind.  ]VJ,ore 
especially  is  this  ^'&'.  case 
with  a  people  so  addicted 
to  the  use  of  pen,  ink  and 
paper,  as  the  Chinese.  In 
the  countless  voJumes 
which  have  appeared  and 
are  appearing  from  the 
many  publishing  centres, 
we  see  mirrored  the  tem- 
—  perament  of  the  people, 
their  excellencies,  their  deficiencies,  and  their 
peculiarities.  Abundant  evidence  is  to  be 
found  of  their  activity  in  research  and  diligence 
in  compilation,  nor  are  signs  wanting  which 
point   to    the    absence    of    the   faculty   of    imag- 

494 


Grace  of  Style  Wanting.  496 

illation,  and  to  an  inability  to  rise  beyond 
a  certain  degree  of  excellence  or  knowledge, 
while  at  the  same  time  we  have  displayed  the 
characteristics  both  of  matter  and  manner, 
which  most  highly  commend  themselves  to  the 
national    taste. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  very  unplastic 
nature  of  the  language,  there  is  wanting  in 
the  literature  that  grace  of  diction  and  vary- 
ing force  of  expression  which  are  found  in 
languages  capable  of  inflexion  and  of  syntacti- 
cal motion.  The  stiff  angularity  of  the  written 
language,  composed  as  it  is  of  isolated,  unas- 
similating  characters,  robs  eloquence  of  its 
charm,  poetry  of  its  musical  rhj'thm,  and  works 
of  fancy  of  half  their  power ;  but  in  no  way 
interferes  with  the  relation  of  facts,  nor  the 
statement  of  a  philosophical  argument.  Hence 
to  all  but  the  Chinese  mind,  which  knows  no 
other  model  of  excellence,  the  poetical  and 
fanciful  works  of  Chinese  authors  offer  fewer 
attractions  than  their  writings  on  history, 
science,  and  philosophy.  Unlike  the  literatures 
of  other  countries,  one  criticism  applies  to  the 
whole  career  of  Chinese  letters.  It  is  difficult 
to   imagine   a   nation   of  busy   writers   pursuing 


496  The  Literature. 

a  course  of  literature  for  more  thau  three 
thousand  years,  and  yet  displaying  so  little 
progress  in  thought  aud  style  as  Chinese  au- 
thors have.  That  their  works  vary  in  quality 
no  one  who  has  read  two  Chinese  books  can 
doubt ;  but  the  variations  are  within  limits, 
and,  except  perhaps  in  a  few  modern  works 
in  which  the  effect  of  European  influence  is 
observable,  the  width  of  thought  and  power 
of  expression  have  in  no  wise  increased,  at 
least,  since  the  revival  of  letters  under  the 
Han  Dynasty  (B.C.  206-a.d.  25).  The  fragments 
which  we  have  of  an  earlier  literature  make 
it  difficult  to  institute  a  comparison  with  them. 
We  have  the  nine  classics  —  of  which  more 
anon  —  the  early  Taouist  literature,  and  a  few 
scientific  works  ;  but  these  are  all  that  remain 
to  us  of  the  very  considerable  literature  which 
existed  in  what  is  now  China,  prior  to  that 
period. 

If  we  were  to  accept  the  accounts  given  us 
by  the  people  themselves,  of  the  origin  of 
their  literature,  we  should  be  compelled  to  be- 
lieve that  it  took  its  rise  from  the  rock  in- 
scriptions cut  by  the  Kwei  and  Ma  tribes  of 
aborigines   on    the    banks  of    the     Hwang   and 


The  Most  Antique  Booh.  497 

Lo  rivers,  or,  as  the  legend  is  now  understood, 
from  the  inscriptions  brought  out  from  the 
waters  of  those  rivers  on  the  backs  o^  a  tor- 
toise (Kwei)  and  a  horse  (Ma);  but  we  may 
safely  assume  that  the  Chinese  not  only 
brought  a  knowledge  of  writing  into  China, 
but  that  they  brought  also  books,  and  there 
is  internal  evidence  to  support  the  assumption 
that  parts  of  the  Yih  king,  or  Book  of 
Changes,  the  book  for  wliich  the  Chinese  claim 
the  greatest  antiquity,  were  among  these  writ- 
ings. That  it  belongs  to  a  very  early  period, 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that  until 
now  the  key  to  its  interpretation  has  been 
entirely  lost,  and  that,  though  the  ablest 
native  scholar  of  all  ages,  including  Confu- 
cius, have  attempted  to  explain  it,  they  have 
one  and  all  failed  to  offer  a  satisfactory  in- 
terpretation of  its  pages.  That  which  Chinese 
scholars  have  been  unable  to  do  M.  Ter- 
rien  de  la  Couperie  has  accomplished,  and 
instead  of  being  a  mysterious  depository  of 
deep  divinatory  lore,  it  turns  out  to  be  a 
collection  of  syllabaries  such  as  are  common 
in  Accadian  literature,  inteispersed  with  chap- 
ters of  astrological  formulae,  ephemerides,  and 
32 


498  The  Literature. 

others  dealing  with  ethnological  facts  relating 
to  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  the  country ;  all 
takiug  the  form  of  vocabularies,  and  therefore 
as  impossible  to  be  translated  in  the  sense  in 
which  every  commentator,  from  Confucius  down- 
wards, has  attempted  to  translate  them  as 
Johnson's   Dictionary    would   be. 

The  work  consists  of  sixty-four  chapters,  at 
the  head  of  each  of  which  stands  a  hexagram 
composed  of  straight,  whole,  and  divided  lines, 
which  may  very  probably  have  been  derived 
fiom  the  rock  inscriptions  of  the  Kwei  and  Ma 
tribes.  Following  each  hexagram  occur  a  few 
sentences  of  the  original  text,  which,  however, 
have  been  largely  supplemented  by  the  ortho- 
dox commentaries  upon  them.  The  deviser  of 
the  hexagrams  is  said  to  have  been  Fuh-he 
(b.  c.  2852-2737),  to  whom  also  the  authorship 
of  the  original  text  is  attributed  by  some 
critics.  The  commentaries  which  are  now  em- 
bodied with  the  text  are,  by  common  tradition, 
believed  to  have  been  the  work  of  WSn  Wang 
(b.  c.  .1231-1135),  his  son  Chow  Knng,  and 
Confucius. 

The    Yih  king  is,    then,    the   oldest   book    ex- . 
tant    in  the  Chinese  language;    and  in  the  long 


Ligld  on  the  Aborigines.  499 

interval  which  separates  it  from  the  Confucian 
period  when  most  of  the  other  early  canonical 
works  took  their  present  shape,  but  few  works 
appeared  of  which  we  know  more  than  the 
name.  Among  those,  however,  which  have 
maintained  an  existence  from  a  remote  period 
are  the  San  fun,  "  the  three  records "  of  the 
emperors  Fuh-he,  Shin-nung  and  Hwan-te  (B.C. 
2852-2597),  or  rather  a  portion  of  it,  and 
the  Jffea  seaou  ching,  or  "  Calendar  of  the  Hea 
Dynasty,"  which  bears  evidence  of  having  been 
written  about  2000  b.  c.  The  first  of  these 
works  throws  considerable  light  on  the  condition 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes  at  the  time  of  immi- 
gration of  the  Chinese,  and  though  through  a 
confusion  which  has  arisen  owing  to  the  tribal 
names  being  read  ideographically  instead  of 
phonetically,  it  is  generally  regarded  both  by 
native  and  foreign  scholars  as  a  collection  of 
idle  legends,  it  yet  supplies  much  ethnological 
information  of  importance.  The  same  remark 
applies,  though  not  to  the  same  extent,  to  the 
Hea  Calendar  ;  but  what  is  additionally  inter- 
esting in  this  work  is  the  evidence  it  furnishes 
of  the  influence  exercised  upon  the  Chinese 
language   by  its   contact  with  tongues   of  a  dif- 


500  The  Literature. 

ferent  morphology.  Nothing,  as  has  been  stated 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  more  marked  and 
less  mutable  in  Chinese  than  the  construction 
of  a  simple  sentence.  As  in  English  the  sub- 
ject comes  first,  then  the  predicate  and,  lastly, 
the  object;  but  in  the  Hea  Calendar  we  find 
the  position  of  the  subject  and  predicate  occa- 
sionally reversed,  and  if  any  other  evidence 
were  required  to  point  to  such  an  arrange- 
ment being  foreign  to  Chinese,  the  remarks  of 
the  commenters  on  such  passages  would  supply 
it.  Among  the  signs  of  the  ninth  month  tlie 
Hea  Calendar  says  Te  hung  yen,  literally 
"  migrate,  the  wild  geese."  This  reversal  of 
the  recognized  order  of  the  words  is  so  con- 
spicuous that  the  commenters  would  fain  find 
a  reason  for  it ;  and  the}'  can  offer  no  better 
explanation  than  that  the  act  of  emigration 
would  probably  produce  the  first  effect  upon 
the  mind  of  the  writer,  and  afterwards  the 
fact  that  the  emigrants  were  geese,  and  they 
suggest  that  the  writer's  pen  would  follow  the 
order   of  his   thouglits! 

Though  only  a  few  ancient  works  are  ex- 
tant, we  know  from  references  which  they  con- 
tain  that  both  the    Chinese   and    the  aborigines 


The  Book  of  Odes.  601 

possessed  considerable  literatures.  We  have 
the  titles  of  a  number  of  Chinese  works  which 
would  now  be  invaluable  aids  to  clearing  up 
many  obscure  poiuts  in  the  early  history  of 
the  Chinese  and  their  language ;  and  we  have 
also  mention  made  of  Kwei  records,  and  books 
of  the  Lung,  Ma,  Pung,  Yue-chang,  and  other 
aboriginal  tribes.  On  all  sides  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  certain  literary  activity.  We  read, 
for  example,  of  officials  being  sent  at  regular 
intervals  into  different  parts  of  the  Chinese 
states  to  note  and  collect  the  various  dialec- 
tical differences  as  they  developed,  and  for 
many  centuries  it  was  customary  to  collect  the 
popular  songs  current  in  the  several  principali- 
ties for  the  purpose,  as  we  are  told,  of  judg- 
ing from  them  of  the  character  of  the  rule 
exercised  by  the  princes.  In  this  way  three 
thousand  odes  were  collected  in  the  royal 
archives.  Of  these  a  careful  selection  was 
made  either  by  Confucius,  as  is  very  generally 
believed,  or  by  one  of  his  contemporaries,  which 
now  under  the  title  of  She  king^  or  "  Book  of 
Odes,"  forms  the  second  of  the  nine  classical 
works.  The  odes,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the   above  account  of  their   origin,   refer   princi- 


502  The  Literature. 

pally  to  local  affairs,  both  political  and  social. 
The  picture  they  draw  of  the  condition  of 
the  states  is  not  unfavorable.  They  teach  us 
that  side  by  side  with  occasional  tyranny,  vio- 
lence, and  outrage,  there  existed  political 
loyalty  and  many  social  virtues,  and,  in  fact, 
that  then  as  now  the  Chinese  were  a  patient, 
industrious,  and  law-abiding  people.  Of  their 
poetical  value  it  is  difficult  to  speak,  owing  to 
the  impurity  of  the  text  and  the  changes 
which  the  characters  have  undergone  in  sound. 
By  the  Chinese  they  are  regarded  with  re- 
spectful reverence,  and  endless  commentaries 
manifest   the   interest   taken    in    them. 

The  Shoo  king,  or  "  Book  of  History,"  the 
third  of  the  classical  works,  also  took  its 
present  shape  about  the  time  of  Confucius. 
Like  the  She  king,  too,  it  is  a  compilation, 
and  shares  with  that  work  the  reputation  of 
having  been  edited  by  Confucius.  It  is  stated 
in  the  history  of  the  Suy  Dynasty,  that  "  Con- 
fucius inspected  the  documents  in  the  library 
of  the  state  of  Chow,  and  having  found  the 
records  of  the  four  dynasties  of  Yu,  Hea, 
Shang,  and  Chow  (b.  c.  2356-700),  he  preserved 
the   best  among   them    and    rejected   the   others. 


Historical  Work.  503 

Beginning  with  Yu  and  coming  down  to  Chow, 
he  compiled  altogether  a  hundred  books,  and 
made  a  preface  to  them."  Whether  this  au- 
thor, who  in  the  above  sentence  reproduces  a 
common  belief,  was  right  or  wrong  in  attrib- 
uting the  compilation  of  the  records  to  Con- 
fucius, his  account  of  their  nature  and  scope 
at  least  is  correct.  Like  everything  else  in 
ancient  Chinese  history,  the  laws  for  the  com- 
pilation of  history  were  minute  and  definite. 
The  historians  were  court  officials,  and  among 
them  were  historians  of  the  left  hand  and 
historians  of  the  right  hand.  The  former  were 
charged  with  the  duty  of  recording  imperial 
charges,  ministerial  speeches,  etc.,  and  the  lat- 
ter with  that  of  narrating  facts.  The  contents 
of  the  Shoo  king  mark  that  the  compilation 
was  the  work  of  an  historian  of  the  left,  since 
they  consist  only  of  the  speeches  and  charges 
of  the  rulers  and  their  ministers.  These,  and 
especially  those  contained  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters, are  extremely  interesting,  and  throw  con- 
siderable light  on  the  early  history  of  the 
settlement  of  the  Chinese  in  China,  as  well  as 
on  the  scientific  knowledge  they  possessed  and 
the   religious   sentiments   they   professed. 


504  The  Literature. 

As  has  been  already  pointed  out  in  the  case 
of  the  language,  we  have  no  traces  of  an  early 
growth  of  either  scientific  knowledge  or  re- 
ligious professions  among  the  Chinese  in  China. 
They  step  on  to  the  stage  as  full-grown  scien- 
tists, in  the  Chinese  sense,  and  religionists. 
There  is  no  beginning  with  the  A,  B,  C,  of 
knowledge  or  religion.  Tliat  was  worked  out 
for  them  by  a  people  in  Western  Asia,  among 
whom  they  sojourned,  and  of  the  results  of 
whose  toil  they  possessed  themselves.  If  tliis 
were  not  so,  it  would  be  startling  to  read, 
in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Shoo  king,  the 
glib  utterances  of  Yaou  (2356-2255  B.  c.)  on 
the  subject  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  solstices, 
and  the  position  of  the  stars.  Scarcely  less 
striking  is  the  high  moral  tone  which  per- 
vades every  utterance  of  sovereign  and  min- 
ister. No  higher  system  of  moralit}-  could 
po.ssibly  be  devised  than  tliat  which  is  put 
into  the  mouths  of  these  men  whom,  if  we 
were  to  follow  the  Chinese  belief,  we  should 
be  compelled  to  regard  as  the  pioneers  of  a 
struggling  civilization.  Such  a  conjunction  is 
manifestly  inconsistent.  In  the  early  stages  of 
society    elevated    sentiments  find  their  utterance 


Inconsistent  Moral  Utterances.  505 

in  isolated  deeds  and  inspired  expressions,  not 
in  evenly-maintained  and  well-thougbt-out  dis- 
courses  of   a   highly   moral   order. 

Imagine,  for  example,  such  sentiments  as 
the  following,  uttered  at  the  dawn  of  history 
of  any  nation  :  —  "  Yu  said,  '  If  the  sovereign 
can  realize  the  difficulty  of  his  sovereignship, 
and  the  minister  can  realize  the  difficulty  of 
his  ministry,  government  will  be  well  ordered, 
and  the  people  will  sedulously  seek  to  be 
virtuous.'  The  emperor  said,  '  Yes ;  let  this 
really  be  the  case,  and  good  words  will  no- 
where lie  hidden ;  no  man  of  virtue  and  tal- 
ents will  be  neglected  away  from  court ;  and 
the  myriad  states  will  enjoy  repose.  To  ascer- 
tain the  views  of  all,  to  give  up  one's  own 
opinion  and  follow  that  of  others,  to  refrain 
from  oppressing  the  helpless,  and  not  to 
neglect  the  straightened  and  poor :  —  it  was 
only  the  Emperor  Yaou  who  could  attain  to 
this.'  "  * 

Either,  then,  we  must  imagine  that  these 
speeches  were  invented  for  the  speakers  many 
centuries  after  they  were  supposed  to  have 
been   uttered,    or   that    the    Chinese    had   before 

*Legge's  "Shoo   King."     Book   11, 


506  The  Literature. 

they  entered  China  reached  the,  high  level  at 
which   they   appear. 

An  instance  of  a  work  by  an  historian  of 
the  right  hand  is  furnished  by  the  one  book 
of  which  we  know  Confucius  to  have  been  the 
author,  and  in  wbich,  under  the  title  of  the 
CKun  ts'ew^  or  "  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals," 
he  records  the  history  of  his  native  state  of  Loo 
extending  over  two  hundred  and  forty-two  years. 
This  being  the  undoubted  work  of  the  sage,  an 
unusual  interest  at  first  sight  attaches  to  it,  and 
one's  expectations  are  certainly  not  lessened  by  the 
statements  of  the  author,  and  of  contemporary 
scholars  concerning  it.  "The  world,"  says 
Mencius,  "was  falling  into  decay,  and  right 
principles  had  dwindled  away.  Perverse  dis- 
courses and  oppressive  deeds  were  again  waxen 
ripe.  Cases  were  occurring  of  ministers  who 
murdered  their  rulers,  and  of  sons  who  mur- 
dered their  fathers.  Confucius  was  afraid,  and 
made  the  CKun  Ts'ew.''^  As  soon  as  it  ap- 
peared, we  are  told  that  rebellious  ministers 
quaked  with  fear,  and  undutiful  sons  were 
overcome  with  terror.  "  Its  righteous  deci- 
sions,"   said    Confucius,  "I    ventured   to  make." 

Such   statements   naturally  prepare    us   to   ex- 


Confucius's  CKun  Ts'ew.  507 

pect  to  find  in  the  CA'mw  Ts'ew  a  history  in 
which  the  narrative  of  events  would  be  inter- 
spersed with  sage  reflections  and  deep-sighted 
criticisms.  We  should  expect  to  find  praise 
and  blame  distributed  with  a  severely  discrim- 
inating pen,  and  crimes  denounced,  and  good 
deeds  commended,  with  impassioned  earnest- 
ness. But  most  of  all  we  should  expect  to 
find  the  history  strictly  accurate.  On  each  of 
these  points  the  reader  will  be  disappointed. 
Taking  the  strictest  view  of  his  duty  as  an 
historian  of  the  right-hand,  Confucius  confined 
himself  entirely  to  the  barest  narration  of 
facts.  Absolutely  without  a  remark  or  reflec- 
tion, the  events  are  strung  together  without 
any  attempt  to  point  a  moral,  or  to  weave 
them  together  in  a  connected  history.  Each 
chapter  consists  of  a  number  of  short  para- 
graphs, embodying  as  many  facts,  concerning 
which  the  reader  is  left  to  draw  his  own  con- 
clusions. The  following,  the  first  chapter,  may 
be   taken    as   a   specimen    of    the    whole    work: 

"  [Hisl  first  year  [began],  in  the  Spring-reigning  first 
month. 

"  III  the  third  month  the  Duke  and  E-foo  of  Choc 
made  a  covenant  in  Meeh. 


608    J  The  Literature. 

"In  summer,  in  the  fifth  month,  the  Earl. of  Ch'ing 
overcame  Twan   in  Ten. 

"  In  autumn,  in  the  seventh  mouth,  the  Heavenly  King 
sent  the  administrator  Heuen  with  a  present  of  carriages 
and  horses,  for  the  funerals  of  Duke  Hwuy  and  his 
[wife]   Chung-tsze. 

"In  the  ninth  month  [the  Duke]  and  an  oflScer  of 
Sung  made  a  covenant  in  Suh. 

"  In  winter,  in  the  twelfth  month,  the  Earl  of  Chal 
came  [to  Loo].     Kung-tsze  Yih-sze  died." 

This  specimen  of  the  style  of  the  CKun 
Txew  makes  further  remark  on  the  subject 
unnecessary,  but  something  might  still  be  said 
for  it,  if  it  were  a  faithful  record  ;  but  even 
here  it  is  found  wanting.  Facts  are  notori- 
ously suppressed  and  misrepresented,  but  not- 
withstanding this,  so  great  is  the  faith  of  the 
Chinese  in  Confucius  that  it  is  enshrined 
among  the  classics,  and  has  not  even  yet 
ceased  to  excite  the  admiration  of  his  coun- 
trymen.* 

*It  is  difficult  for  a  European,  with  his  moral  training,  to  appreciate 
the  CVuH  Ti'ew  or  to  understand  the  admiration  that  has  existed  fur  it 
among  the  Chinese  for  twenty-five  centuries.  Its  apparent  inaccuracies  or 
wilful  perversions  of  the  truth  are  a  part  of  the  author's  plan  to  shield 
the  vices  and  wickednesses  of  sovereigns  of  his  state,  of  whom,  accord- 
ing to  his  creed,  no  evil  should  be  uttered.  To  a  Chinese,  the  specimen 
in  the  text  seems  rather  a  travesty  than  a  translation,  for  the  delicate 
shades  of  msaning    and    the    position   of    the    words    in    the  original,   which 


The  Book  of  Riies.  509 

The  fifth  of  the  Five  King  which,  with  the 
Four  Shoo,  make  up  the  nine  classics,  is  the 
Le  ke^  or  "Book  of  Rites,"  As  in  the  case 
of  the  majority  of  the  ancient  books,  its  au- 
thorship is  uncertain,  but  it  is  generally  at- 
tributed to  the  Duke  of  Chow,  in  the  twelfth 
century  b.  c.  As  its  name  implies,  it  deals 
with  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  nation, 
and  so  minute  is  it  in  detail,  that  it  provides 
not  only  for  courtly  pageants  and  royal  pro- 
cedure, but  for  the  every-day  social  and  do- 
mestic relations  and  duties  of  the  people.  At 
the  present  day  it  is  still  the  ultimate  court 
of  appeal  in  all  doubtful  ceremonials,  and  one 
of  the  six  governing  boards  at  Peking  —  tlie 
Board  of  Rites  —  is  especially  charged  with 
the  duty  of  seeing  its  precepts  carried  out 
throughout  the  empire.  Speaking  of  this 
work,  Gallery  says: — "In  ceremonial  is  sum- 
med up  the  whole  soul  of  the  Chinese,  and 
to  my  mind  the  '  Book  of  Rites '  is  the  most 
exact   and    complete    monograph    that    this    na- 

give  a  dew  to  the  moral  nature  of  the  act  are  lost  in  the  English  rendering. 
The  author  only  echoes  the  sentiments  of  Dr.  Legge  in  his  misjudgment 
of  the  philosopher.  The  commentaries  on  the  C/t'un  Ts'ew,  written  some 
time  after  it,  explain  and  unfold  the  principles  by  which  Confucius  was 
guided  in   writing  it,   and  no   Chinese  is  deceived  by   it. 


510  The  Literature. 

tion  can  give  of  itself  to  the  rest  of  the 
world.  Its  affections,  if  it  has  any,  are  sat- 
isfied by  ceremonial ;  its  duties  are  fulfilled 
by  means  of  ceremonial.  Its  virtues  and  vices 
are  recognized  by  ceremonial ;  the  natural  re- 
lations of  created  beings  are  essentially  con- 
nected with  ceremonial ;  in  a  word  for  it 
ceremonial  is  man,  the  man  moral,  the  man 
politic,  and  the  man  religious,  in  their  num- 
berless relations  with  the  family,  society,  the 
state,   morality,   and   religion." 

Such  was  the  existing  literature  at  the  time 
of  Confucius,  and  so  great  was  the  influence 
of  his  teachings  and  opinions,  that  almost  im- 
mediately after  his  death,  the  Five  King,  all 
of  which  had  received  his  imprimatur,  and  one 
of  which,  as  has  been  said,  was  actually 
written  b}'  him,  were  generally  accepted  as  con- 
taining the  true  basis  of  all  knowledge  and 
morality.  To  these  were  added  four  j^ooks 
which  were  subsequently  written  by  the  dis- 
ciples and  followers  of  the  sage,  viz.,  the 
TaJieo,  or  "  Great  Learning ;  "  the  Chung  yung, 
or  "  the  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  ;  "  the  Lun  yu, 
or  "  Confucian  Analects ;  "  and  the  Mang-tsze^ 
or    the    "Works    of   Mencius."     The   first   three 


The  Q-reat  Mencius. 


611 


directly  embody  the  teachings  of  Confucius,  and 
the  fourth  those  of  his  great  successor,  Mencius. 
Through  all  succeeding  ages  these  nine  works 
have  been  regarded  as  the  sum  total  of  all 
wisdom ;  they  have  been  the  primary  objects 
of  study  of  every  succeeding  generation  of 
scholars;  their  texts  have  been  commented  on 
until   almost    every  word    has   been    the    subject 


CHINESE   STREET   AMUSEMENTS. 


of  minute  criticism,  and  through  the  many 
centuries,  during  which  competitive  examina- 
tions have  been  in  vogue,  they  have  formed 
the    principal   subjects   for   examination. 

Notwithstanding  that  this  foundation  of  a 
national  literature  had  been  laid,  little  of  im- 
portance was  added  to  it  during  the  centuries 
wliich   immediately  succeeded  the    time  of   Coiv- 


512  The  Literature. 

fucius.  Literature,  like  every  other  art,  re- 
quires congenial  surroundings,  that  it  may  flourish 
and  grow.  Peace  and  freedom  of  thought  are 
as  essential  to  its  well-being  as  turbulence  and 
political  uncertainty  are  destructive  of  it.  Un- 
fortunatel}',  the  disorder  in  and  the  rivalries 
between  the  Chinese  states,  which  Confucius 
had  striven  to  avert,  increased  in  virulence 
after  his  death.  On  all  sides  were  wars  and 
rumors  of  wars,  government  had  ceased  to  ex- 
ist, and  all  rights,  whether  political  or  social, 
were  trodden  under  foot  by  armed  men.  At 
such  a  time  scholars  were  not  likely  to  gain 
a  hearing,  and  beyond  some  dissertations  on  the 
classics,  and  commentaries  on,  and  musings 
consequent  on  Laou-tsze's  Taou  tih  king,  or 
Sutra  of  Reason  and  Virtue,  which  appeared 
probably  in  the  lifetime  of  Confucius,  little  was 
written    which   needs   mention. 

Even  the  restoration  of  peace  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  empire  under  She  Hvvang-te 
(B.  c.  221-209),  far  from  advancing  the  cause 
of  letters,  bronght  about  the  greatest  calamity 
that  has  ever  befallen  a  national  literature. 
By  the  advice  of  his  ministers,  in  order  to 
build    up     his    empire    on    a     tabula    rasa,    She 


Destruction  of  Books.  518 

H\vaiig-te  ordered  the  destruction  by  fire  of 
all  books  except  those  of  his  native  state,  and 
works  on  medicine  and  divination.  How  great 
was  the  destruction  caused  by  this  enactment, 
we  shall  never  know ;  but  as  it  could  only 
be  put  in  force  within  the  area  of  the  Chi- 
nese principalities,  it  is  probable  that  the  litera- 
ture current  in  the  outlying  states  escaped 
the  flames,  but  all  the  works  which  had  been 
collected  in  the  state  libraries  during  the  Chow 
Dynasty  relating  to  the  history,  science,  and 
art  of  the  people ;  all  the  works  on  the  dia- 
lectical differences  and  variations  of  the  lan- 
guage ;  and  all  the  records  of  and  in  the 
Koo  wan  perished  at  the  hands  of  the  ex- 
ecutioner. 

As  if  every  change  in  the  condition  of  the 
empire  was  to  be  equally  hostile  to  literature, 
the  contest  which  brought  about  the  fall  of 
the  short-lived  Dynasty  of  She  Hwang-te  (b.  c. 
221-206)  ended  with  the  sack  and  burning 
of  the  capital,  when  the  flames,  we  are  told, 
raged  among  the  palaces  and  public  buildings 
for  the  space  of  three  months.  Thus  the 
probabilit}^    is    that   most    of    the    books   which 

were    exempted   from    the    flames   fired    by    She 
33 


514  The  Literature. 

Hwaiig-te  perished  in  the  conflagration  which 
heralded   the    overthrow  of  his   successor. 

No  sooner  had  Kaou-tsoo,  the  founder  of  the 
Han  Dynasty,  showji  a  disposition  to  encourage 
letters  than  phoenix-like  the  old  literature  rose 
from  its  ashes.  From  the  walls  of  houses,  from 
caves  in  the  mountains,  and  even  from  the 
beds  of  rivers,  the  people  produced  their 
literary  treasures  which  had  been  hidden  away 
until  tiie  tyranny  of  She  Hwang-te  should  be 
overpassed.  What  these  sources  failed  to  re- 
produce, old  men  came  forward  to  supply  from 
their  well-stored  memories,  and  thus  were  kept 
alive  the  torches  which  had  been  lighted  by 
the   genius  of   by-gone    writers. 

"After  the  death  of  Confucius,"  says  the 
historian  of  this  period,  "  there  was  an  end  to 
his  exquisite  words ;  and  when  his  seventy 
disciples  had  passed  away,  violence  began  to 
be  done  to  their  meaning."  Thus  it  came 
about  that  there  were  five  different  editions 
of  the  "  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  four  of 
the  "  Book  of  Odes,"  and  several  of  the  "  Book 
of  Changes."  Amid  the  disorder  and  collision 
of  the  warring  states  (b.  c.  480-221),  truth  and 
falsehood    were    still   more    in    a   state   of  war- 


AT     BREAKFAST. 


Collecting  the  Books.  517 

fare,  and  a  sad  confusion  marked  the  words 
of  the  various  scholars.  Then  came  the  cal- 
amity inflicted  upon  the  Ts'in  Dynasty,  when 
the  literary  monuments  were  destroyed  by  fire, 
in  order  to  befool  the  '  black  heads '  {i.e.^ 
the  people).  But  the  Han  Dynasty  arose,  and 
reversed  the  ruin  wrought  by  Ts'in,  and  care- 
fully gathered  together  the  (bamboo)  slips  and 
tablets,  and  threw  wide  open  the  way  for 
the  bringing  in  of  books.  In  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Heaou-wu  (b.  c.  139-86),  portions  of 
books  being  wanted  and  tablets  lost,  so  that 
ceremonies  and  music  were  suffering  great 
damage,  he  was  moved  to  sorrow,  and  said, 
'  I  am  grieved  at  this : '  and  forthwith  he 
formed  a  plan  of  repositories  in  which  the 
books  might  be  stored ;  and  he  further  ap- 
pointed officers  to  transcribe  all  works  of  the 
various  scholars,  and  directed  that  the  manu- 
scripts thus  obtained  should  be  placed  in  the 
repositories.  The  Emperor  Ch'ing  (b.  c.  31-6), 
finding  that  a  portion  of  the  books  were  still 
dispersed  and  missing,  commissioned  Ch'in  Nung, 
the  superintendent  of  guests,  to  search  for  un- 
discovered books  throughout  the  empire,  and 
by  special  edict   ordered   the    chief  of   the    ban- 


618  The  Literature. 

queting-house,  Lew  Heaug,  to  examiue  the 
classics,  together  with  the  commentaries  on 
them,  the  writings  of  the  scholais,  and  all 
poetical  works ;  the  guardian  of  the  city  gates, 
Jin  Hwang,  to  examine  the  books  on  the  art  of 
war ;  the  grand  historiographer,  Jin  Heen,  to  ex- 
aniine  the  books  on  divination ;  and  the  imperial 
physician,  Le  Ch'u-kwo,  to  examine  the  books 
on  medicine.  As  soon  as  a  work  was  completed, 
Lew  Heang  arranged  it,  indexed  it,  and  made 
a  digest  of  its  contents,  which  was  presented 
to  tile  emperor.  While  the  undertaking  was 
in  progress  Lew  Heang  died,  and  the  emperor 
Gal  (B.  C.-A.  D.)  appointed  his  son  Hin,  a  master 
of  the  imperial  carriage  factory,  to  complete 
his  father's  work.  On  this  Lew  Hin  collected 
the  books,  and  presented  a  report  of  them 
under  seven  categories,  viz. :  1st.,  General 
Rdsum^s ;  2d,  the  Six  Arts ;  8d,  Philosophi- 
cal Works;  4th,  Poetry;  6th,  Military  Works; 
6th,    Mathematics;    and    7th,    ^ledicine. 

In  this  way  were  collected  3,123  sections  on 
the  classics,  2,706  on  philosophy,  1,318  on 
poetry,  790  on  military  matters,  2,628  on  mathe- 
matics, and  868  on  medicine.  Strange  stories 
are   told   of   the    way    these    treasures   were    un- 


Concealed  Books  Discovered.  619 

earthed.  The  text  of  four  of  the  classics,  to- 
gether with  a  work  on  filial  piety,  were 'found 
concealed  in  the  walls  of  the  house  which  had 
been  Confucius's;  but  so  long  and  dark  had 
been  the  night  which  had  settled  down  on 
the  literature  of  the  country  since  the  time  of 
the  sage,  that  these  recovered  works  were  un- 
intelligible to  all  but  a  few  ripe  scholars.  By 
these,  however,  they  were  transcribed,  and 
were  eagerly  studied  by  the  people.  The  im- 
petus given  to  literature  by  these  discoveries 
was  prodigious.  It  was  as  though  in  the  long 
period  of  apparent  sterility  men's  minds  had 
been  gaining  depth  and  force  preparatory  to 
the  first  appearance  of  spring  after  the  long 
winter  of  their  discontent.  In  Sze-ma  Tseen, 
the  Herodotus  of  China,  as  he  has  been  called, 
and  Pan  Koo,  the  historian  of  the  Han  Dy- 
nasty, history  found  exponents  who  have  never 
been  surpassed  in  China,  either  before  or  since, 
for  arrangement  of  material  and  comprehensive- 
ness of  detail.  On  philosophical  subjects  tlie 
writers  of  this  period,  among  whom  the  names 
of  Kea  E.  Lew  Gan,  Yang  Heung.  and  others, 
stand  conspicuous,  are  pre-eminent  at  the  pres- 
ent   day;    and   in    the   light    literature    of    the 


620  The  Literature. 

time  was  established  a  style  which  became 
a  model  for  all  subsequent  ages.  Tales  of  the  im- 
agination then  first  found  their  expression  on 
paper,  and  in  the  festive  poems  of  the  wine- 
bibber,  philosopher,  and  musician,  Ts'ai  Yung, 
are  foreshadowed  the  wine-extolling  poems  of 
Too  Foo  and  other  poets  of  the  T'ang  Dy- 
nasty. 

From  this  period  the  tide  of  literature  has 
flowed  onward  in  an  ever-increasing  volume, 
checked  only,  every  now  and  then,  by  one  of 
those  signal  calamities  which  have  from  time  to 
time  overtaken  the  imperial  libraries  of  China. 
In  times  of  political  tumult  the  capital  for  the 
time  being  has  not  once  nor  twice  been  burnt 
to  the  ground  with  its  palaces  and  libraries : 
but  it  is  noteworthy  that  however  ruthlessly 
on  such  occasions  these  intellectual  centres  have 
been  destroyed,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
successful  founders  of  succeeding  dynasties  has 
been  to  restore  them  to  their  former  complete- 
ness  and   efficiency. 

Though,  as  has  been  said,  the  works  of  the 
ancients  were  the  foundation  of  all  succeeding 
literature,  and  though,  therefore,  the  same  main 
lines    have    been    observed    through    all   subse- 


CROCODILE    POINT,    SI-KIANG    RIVER 


Divisions  of  Chinese  Literature.  523 

quent  ages,  certain  prominence  has  under  differ- 
ent dynasties  been  given  to  particular  branches 
of  letters.  Historical  and  philosophical  research 
marked  the  Han  period ;  under  the  T'ang  Dy- 
nasty there  arose  generations  of  elegant  prose 
and  brilliant  verse  writers,  at  the  bidding  of 
whose  pencils  the  angularity  of  the  language 
yielded  to  their  well-turned  periods,  and  the 
short,  formal  lines  of  the  earlier  poetry  were 
exchanged  for  more  musical  and  plastic  verses. 
Under  the  Sung  Dynasty  philosophy  again  held 
sway,  while  dramatic  writings  distinguished  the 
succeeding  Mongol  Dynasty,  and  during  the 
Ming  Dynasty  arose  that  desire  to  compile 
encyclopaedias  which  has  been  so  marked  dnr- 
ing  the  last  four  centuries.  Of  late  years, 
however,  there  has  been  displayed  a  keenness 
of  research  and  power  of  independent  criticism 
which  will  give  the  present  period  a  promi- 
nent  place  in    Chinese   literature. 

The  Chinese  divide  their  literature  into  four 
divisions,  viz.,  classical,  philosophical,  historical, 
and  belles-lettres.  Of  the  nine  classics  we  have 
already  spoken  ;  but  though  they  alone  are 
styled  King,  or  classics,  they  form  but  the 
nucleus     of     the    immense     mass    of    literature 


524  The  Literature. 

which  has  gathered  round  them.  Unfortunately, 
the  remarkable  industr}-,  which  has  served  to  pro- 
duce this  huge  literature,  has  been  too  often 
misdirected.  The  Chinese  are  singularly  want- 
ing in  real  critical  ability.  They  will  split 
straws  about  an  expression,  and  find  fifty 
reasons  for  supporting  an  opinion,  however 
absurd  it  may  be ;  but  they  are  incapable  of 
genuine  antiquarian  research,  and  are  equally 
incapable  of  judging  of  the  true  value  of  facts. 
This,  coupled  with  the  loss  of  the  original 
texts  of  the  classics  —  for  it  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  latest  of  them  was  written  in 
a  character  which  had  undergone  two  very 
marked  changes,  before  it  assumed  its  present 
form  —  has  robbed  most  of  what  they  have 
written  of  any  value.  In  matters  on  which 
history  can  throw  light,  the  remarks  of  the 
commentators  are  often  apposite,  but  it  is  ob- 
vious that  where  the  entire  text  is  misunder- 
stood, "from  the  egg  to  the  apples,"  as  in 
the  Yih  Mng^  or  where  it  is  corrupt,  as  in  the 
She  king.,  there  is  abundant  room  for  the 
career  of  any  hobby-horse  and  the  flight  of 
any  fancy.  Wonderful  things  have  been  evolved 
from    the     Yih  king ;    but    it   was    reserved   for 


Historical  Compositions.  525 

a  learned  Chinaman  of  the  present  day  to 
see  in  Coufucius's  mention  of  the  Yang  and 
Fm,  or  the  male  and  female  principles  of  Na- 
ture, a  direct  reference  to  positive  and  nega- 
tive  electricity. 

The  historical  compositions  of  China  form  the 
most  important  branch  of  the  national  litera- 
ture. Bearing  in  mind  that  the  ancients  con- 
sidered that  an  historian  of  the  left  hand  to 
record  speeches,  charges,  etc.,  and  an  historian 
of  the  right  to  record  facts,  were  all  that 
were  necessary  to  compile  history,  writers  have 
generally  confined  themselves  to  the  lines  thus 
traced  out  for  them.  Following  the  example 
of  Confucius  in  the  Spring  and  Autumn  An- 
nals, they  have  refrained  from  all  reflections, 
drawn  no  inferences,  and  abstained  from  even 
remarks.  By  so  much  is  the  reader  probably 
benefitted,  since  the  historian  is  not  tempted 
to  distort  events  in  order  to  support  a  favor- 
ite theorj^  and  the  student  is  left  to  draw  his 
own  inferences  from  a  plain  statement  of  facts. 
The  She  ke,  or  "  Historical  Record,"  by  Sze- 
ma  Ts'een,  and  the  Han  shoo,  or  "  History  of 
the  Han  Dynasty,"  by  Pan  koo,  are  the  mod- 
els   upon   which   all   future    histories   have   been 


626  The  Literature. 

written.  First  come  the  Imperial  Records, 
which  contain  tlie  purely  political  events  of 
each  reign.  Then  follow  sections  on  chronol- 
ogy, rites  and  music,  jurisprudence,  political 
economy,  state  sacrifices,  astronomy,  elemental 
influences,  geograph}^  literature,  biographies, 
and   records   of  the    neighboring   countries. 

On  all  these  subjects  they  contain  an  immense 
store  of  valuable  and  varied  information,  and 
considering  that  the  history  of  eacii  dynasty 
is  published  during  the  following  one,  they  dis- 
play an  impartiality  and  absence  of  bias  whi<;h  is 
in  every  sense  admirable.  The  plan  of  dividing 
the  histories  into  sharply -defined  sections,  while 
possibl}^  in  some  instances  convenient,  gives  a 
disjointed  air  to  the  compilations,  and  neces- 
sitates a  considerable  amount  of  repetition, 
since  in  the  biographical  portions,  for  example, 
events  are  necessarily  narrated  which  had  already 
appeared  in  the  Imperial  Records,  and  in  tlie 
same  way  chronology,  astronomy,  and  literature 
frequently  trench  on  each  other's  special  domains. 
Notwithstanding  these  imperfections,  the  "  Twen- 
ty-four Imperial  Histories  "  of  as  many  dynasties 
form  a  worthy  monument  of  the  indefatigable 
industry    of    the    imperial    historiographers.     As 


Topographical  Works.  627 

to  their  accuracy,  it  is  very  difficult  to  speak 
with  any  degree  of  certainty,  as  there  are  al- 
most no  published  authorities  by  which  it 
would  be  possible  to  verify  the  statements  they 
contain.  Large  portions  of  Sze-ma  T'seen's 
history  have  no  surer  basis  than  tradition. 
Much  of  its  contents  deal  with  a  period  when 
written  records  were  of  uncertain  value,  and 
which,  if  existing  at  the  time  of  Sze-ma  Ts'een, 
must  have  been  wholly  or  in  part  unintelli- 
gible to  him,  but  beginning  with  Pan  Koo's 
history  of  the  Han  Dynasty  (b.  c.  206  -  A.  d. 
25)  down  to  the  history  of  the  last,  or  Ming- 
Dynasty,  which  came  to  an  end  in  1644,  th& 
annals  have  been  based  on  the  imperial  records,. 
and  though  accuracy  is  not  a  virtue  generall3r 
displayed  by  Chinese  authors,  they  may  fairly 
be   accepted   as   generally    correct. 

A  geographical  counterpart  to  these  dynastic 
histories  is  found  in  the  topographies  which 
are  officially  published  of  each  province,  each 
prefecture,  each  department,  and  each  district, 
throughout  the  empire.  In  these  publications, 
also,  a  systematized  plan  of  arrangement  is 
followed,  and  their  contents  are,  with  excep- 
tions,    classified     under     twenty-four     headings, 


528  The  Literature. 

viz :  —  1.  A  table  of  the  changes  which  the 
district  to  be  described  has  undergone  during 
the  successive  dynasties,  from  the  Han  down- 
wards. 2.  Maps,  3.  A  list  of  the  distances 
from  the  various  places  to  the  chief  towns  of 
the  department.  4.  Astronomical  bearings  of 
the  district.  5.  Its  ancient  geography.  6.  Its 
geographical     position,    and     notable     localities. 

7.  Manners    and    customs    of    the     inhabitants. 

8.  Fortified  places.  9.  Colleges  and  schools. 
10.  The  census  of  the  population.  11.  The 
taxes  on  land.  12.  Mountains  and  rivers.  13. 
Antiquities.  14.  Means  of  defence.  15.  Bridges. 
16.  Dykes.  17.  Tombs  and  monuments.  18. 
Temples  and  ancestral  halls.  19.  Buddhist  and 
Taouist  temples.  20.  Biographies  of  patriotic 
native  officials,  from  the  time  of  the  Han 
Dynasty  downwards.  21.  Celebrated  men  and 
things.  22.  Illustrious  women.  23.  Saints  and 
immortals.     24.    Products   of  the   soil. 

Here,  again,  the  same  evils  result  from  the 
division  of  subjects  as  has  been  noticed  in 
the  histories.  There  is  a  great  assemblage  of 
isolated  detail,  but  no  general  view.  Dry 
statistics  and  bald,  unconnected  facts  meet 
one  at  every  turn,  but  there  is  no  description  of 


Biographical  Work^.  529 

the  lay  of  the  land  or  general  aspect  of  the 
country  or  the  appearance  of  the  towns.  The 
power  of  such  description  do^s  not  accord  with 
the  narrow  train  of  thought,  resulting  from 
the  Chinese  system  of  education.  Detail  is 
dear  to  the  Chinese  mind,  but  accurate  gener- 
alization is  beyond  it.  This  is  plainly  shown 
in  the  inability  of  Chinamen  to  draw  a  map. 
Set  down  to  draw  a  town,  or  a  mountain,  or 
a  village,  they  may  be  trusted  to  do  it  cor- 
rectly ;  but,  if  told  to  draw  a  map  of  the 
tract  of  country  in  which  these  are  situated, 
and  to  place  them  in  their  true,  relative 
positions,  they  are  at  once  at  fault.  It  is 
this  that  makes  Chinese  maps  so  untrustworthy, 
and    valueless   as   guides   to    travellers. 

Besides  these  topographies,  there  are  copious 
works  on  the  water-ways  of  China,  the  rivers 
of  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  of  the 
outlying  dependencies  of  China,  from  the  Great 
Wall  to  Kuldja  and  Kashgaria,  and  from 
Szechuen  to  the  frontiers  of  India.  These 
possess  the  same  excellencies,  and  the  same 
faults,    as   the   topographies. 

Biographies  form  a  considerable  section  under 

the   general    heading    of    histories.     Among   the 
34 


530  The  Literature. 

Chinese  there  exists  the  same  desire  to  add 
that  "  new  terroi-  to  death "  which  among  our- 
selves is  represented  by  "  Lives."  Statesmen 
of  eminence,  literary  men  who  have  gained 
notoriety,  Buddhist  or  Taouist  priests  who  have 
died  in  the  odor  of  sanctit}',  all  find  those 
who  are  eager  to  make  the  nation  share  their 
appreciation    of    tlie    virtues    of   the    dead. 

Chronology  and  catalogues  are  also  favorite 
themes  of  Chinese  authors  and  compilers. 
Their  early  knowledge  of  astronomy,  and  of 
the  sexagenary  CN'cle,  has  given  them  the  means 
of  calculating  times  and  seasons  back  to  a 
very  early  date  ;  but,  as  \Vith  the  catalogues,  the 
chronologies  belong  to  the  modern  phase  of  the 
literature,  when  compilation  came  to  be  preferred 
to  original  authorship.  The  Chinese  are  great 
bibliophiles  and  antiquaries,  and  in  the  houses 
of  the  wealthy  and  educated  classes  there  are 
often  to  be  found  valuable  libraries  and  museums. 
The  catalogues  of  the  most  celebrated  of  these 
have  been  published,  and  give  a  good  general 
idea  of  the  literary  and  antiquarian  treasures 
existing  in  the  empire.  The  largest  and  most 
celebrated  literary  catalogue  is  that  published 
by   order    of    the    Emperor    K'een-lung    of    the 


CHINESE    SCENERY    NEAR    HA-NGAN. 


Catalogue  Work.  533 

contents  of  the  imperial  library.  This  work, 
which  is  entitled  Kin  ting  sze  koo  tseuen  shoo 
tsung  mUh,  "  A  catalogue  published  by  imperial 
order  of  all  the  books  in  the  four  treasuries 
(i.e.,  classics,  history,  philosophy,  and  belles- 
lettres)  of  literature."  In  this  work,  which 
consists  of  two  hundred  volumes,  there  are 
appended  to  the  titles  of  the  works  short  epit- 
omes  of   their    contents. 

The  philosophy  of  China  mainly  relates  to 
th^  art  of  government,  and  proceeds,  except  in 
the  writings  of  a  few  heretics,  on  the  lines 
laid  down  by  Confucius  and  Mencius.  Man's 
nature,  according  to  the  orthodox  view,  is  in 
its  origin  entirely  good,  and  its  natural  course 
is  along  the  paths  of  virtue.  From  these  paths 
it  is  only  induced  to  stray  by  evil  example 
and  influences.  In  the  absence  of  these  seduc- 
tive lures  it  advances  in  spotless  purity,  until 
virtue  becomes  so  confirmed  a  habit  that  it 
is  proof  against  all  attacks  of  evil.  The  ob- 
ject, therefore,  of  a  ruler  should  be,  to  keep 
his  people  in  a  state  of  primitive  simplicity, 
and,  by  the  force  of  his  own  example,  by 
the  promotion  to  places  of  honor  onl}'^  of  men 
of    virtuous    lives,   and    by  rigid    adherence    to 


534  The  Literature. 

the  laws  of  social  order,  to  cultivate  that 
nature  wiiich  is  the  heaven-sent  gift  to  every 
man,  by  the  firm  establishment  of  which  man 
reaches   a   secure   perfection. 

Such  were  the  views  of  the  leading  philoso- 
phers of  the  Han  and  Sung  Dynasties,  of 
Ch'ing  Haou,  Ch'ing  E,  and  Choo  He;  but 
taking  this  view  of  man's  nature,  the  question 
naturally  suggests  itself:  —  Whence,  then,  is 
the  source  and  prevalence  of  evil?  To  this 
point  Choo  He  (A.  D.  1130-1200)  addressed 
himself,  and  expounded  his  theories  on  the 
subject  in  numerous  treatises.  He  opposed 
himself  strenuously  to  the  theory,  held  by  a 
school  of  philosophers  led  by  Seun,  that  the 
nature  of  man  was  evil,  and  adopting  a  mid- 
dle course,  between  that  and  the  theory  of 
the  orthodox  Confucianists,  that  the  nature  of 
man  was  perfectly  good,  he  taught  that  good 
and  evil  were  present  in  the  heart  of  every 
man,  and  that,  just  as  in  nature  a  duality  of 
powers  is  necessar}'  to  the  existence  of  nature 
itself,  so  good  and  evil  are  inseparably  present 
in    the    heart  of   every    human    being. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  understand  the 
systems    of    classification    pursued    by   the    Chi- 


Chinese  Classification.  535 

nese,  and  by  what  process  of  reasoning  they 
include  works  on  agriculture,  astronomy,  and 
the  arts,  encyclopaedias  and  essays,  under  the 
head  of  philosophy,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
Agriculture,  being  a  pursuit  which  is  regarded 
with  peculiar  veneration,  as  being  productive 
of  the  food  of  man,  has  found  many  exponents 
on  paper,  and  imperial  authors  have  not  thought 
it  derogatory  to  describe  the  processes  of 
plougliing,  of  seed-time  and  harvest.  In  two 
well-known  works  by  the  Emperor  K'een-lung, 
every  act  of  the  farmer  in  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  from  the  time  that  he  first  turns  the 
soil  with  his  buffalo-drawn  plough  to  the  time 
when  he  threshes  out  the  grain,  and  every 
act  in  the  cultivation  of  silk,  from  the  first 
stage  of  the  silk-worm  to  tlie  weaving  of 
pieces  of  silk,  are  described  by  engravings 
and   verses   of   poetry. 

Astronomy  has  from  time  immemorial  been 
a  favorite  study  with  the  Chinese,  and  the 
literature  of  the  science  is  large.  Their  knowl- 
edge of  this  subject,  which  is  of  Chaldean 
origin,  is  considerable,  though  not  profound. 
It  has  enabled  them  to  calculate  eclipses  and 
to    recognize    the    precession    of    the    equinoxes. 


636  The  Idterature. 

but  it  has  left  them  with  confused  views 
on  subjects  which  are  matters  of  common 
knowledge  among  western  peoples.  The  earth, 
according  to  their  notions,  is  flat,  immovable, 
and  square,  measuring  about  one  thousand  five 
hundred  miles  each  way.  The  sun,  the  diam- 
eter of  which  is  three  hundred  and  thirty-three 
miles,  stands  at  a  distance  of  four  thousand 
miles  above  it,  but  considerably  below  the 
sidereal  heaven,  the  distance  of  which  from 
the  earth  has  been  found,  by  "  the  method 
of  right-angled  triangles,"  to  be  81,394  le  (3 
le  equal  to  1  mile),  thirty  paces,  fiye  feet,  three 
inches,  and  six  tentlis  of  an  inch  !  The  months 
and  seasons  are  determined  by  the  revolution 
of  Ursa  Major.  The  tail  of  the  constellation 
pointing  to  the  east  at  nightfall  announces  the 
arrival  of  spring,  pointing  to  the  south  the 
arrival  of  summer,  pointing  to  the  west  the 
arrival  of  autumn,  and  pointing  to  the  north 
the  arrival  of  winter.  This  means  of  calcu- 
lating the  seasons  becomes  more  intelligible, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  in  ancient  times 
the  Bear  was  much  nearer, to  the  north  pole, 
and  revolved  round  it  like  the  hand  of  a  clock. 
Scarcely    inferior    in    bulk    to    the    literature 


Literature  of  Medicine  and  Art.  537 

of  astronomy  is  that  of  medicine.  Here,  again, 
the  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  lacks  a  scientific 
basis,  and  their  practice  is  purely  empirical. 
Of  surgery  they  know  little,  and  their  diagnoses 
of  diseases  •  are  quite  primitive.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  medical  works  is  the  "Golden 
Mirror  of  Medicine,"  which  was  published  by 
a  commission  appointed  by  the  Emperor  K'een- 
lung.  It  consists  of  ninety  books,  and  con- 
tains, besides  several  entire  works  of  note,  a 
large  assemblage  of  prescriptions  by  celebrated 
physicians,  and  full  directions  for  understand- 
ing aright  the  indications  furnished,  and  imag- 
ined   to   be    furnished,    by   the   pulse. 

On  drawing  and  painting  much  has  been 
written,  and  the  books  on  this  subject  present 
a  very  interesting  study.  They  lay  bare  the 
secrets  of  the  art,  and  place  us  en  rapport 
with  the  feelings  and  intentions  of  the  artists. 
Of  no  country  in  the  world,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  China  and  Japan,  would  it  probably 
be  correct  to  say  this;  but  Chinese  and  Jap- 
anese art,  for  they  are  one  and  the  same,  are 
mainly  mechanical.  The  graceful  bamboo 
sketches  which  appear  to  be  traced  with  such 
individual    freedom,    the    birds,    the    trees,    the 


538  The  Literature. 

picturesque  landscapes,  etc.,  all  of  which  seem 
to  be  the  result  of  inspiration,  are,  after  all, 
drawn  according  to  fixed  rules  and  after  long- 
continued  practice  from  authorized  models. 
Every  Chinese  picture  is  explained,  if  seen  in 
tlie  light  of  such  works  as  the  Leih  tai  ming 
hwa  ke,  and  we  realize  the  fact  that  there  is 
nothing  new  under  tlie  sun  in  Chinese  drawing 
and   painting. 

During  the  Sung  Dynasty  (A.  D.  960-1127) 
Chinese  literature  reached  its  high-water  mark. 
The  writings  of  authors  of  tliat  period  are  dis- 
tinguished for  originality,  research  and  elegance. 
From  that  time  there  has,  until  quite  lately, 
been  a  marked  decline.  Men  have  given  up 
thinking  for  themselves,  and,  instead  of  seek- 
ing new  fields  of  knowledge,  the}'  have  studied 
onl}'  how  to  reproduce  the  results  gained  by 
others.  One  symptom  of  such  a  decline  in  a 
nation's  literary  career  is  the  appearance  of 
encyclopaedias  of  ready-made  knowledge.  It  is 
always  easier  to  remember  than  to  think ;  and 
the  state  of  mind  which  led  to  the  produc- 
tion of  such  compendiums  is  likely  rather  to 
content  itself  with  memorizing  results  than  to 
step   out   on   the    thornj'   paths    of    knowledge. 


Encyclopcedias.  539 

The  first  work  which  really  deserves  the 
name  of  encyclopaedia  is  the  Wan  keen  tung 
kaou,  which  was  compiled  by  Ma  Twan-lin  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  It  consists  of  three 
hundred  and  forty-eight  books,  and  contains 
a  r^sumd  of  the  existing  knowledge  of  the 
government,  history,  literature,  religion,  and  lan- 
guage, as  well  as  of  the  colonial  and  tributary 
states,  of  the  empire.  "  One  cannot  cease  to 
admire,'  says  R^musat,  "  the  depth  of  research 
which  the  author  was  compelled  to  make  in 
order  to  collect  his  materials,  the  sagacity  he 
has  shown  in  the  arrangement  of  them,  and 
the  clearness  and  prt^cision  with  which  he 
has-  presented  this  multitude  of  objects  in 
every  light."  With  some  qualification  this 
praise  is  fairly  earned  by  the  compiler  of  this 
immense  work,  but,  like  most  of  his  confrater- 
nity, he  lacks  accuracy.  His  references  are 
often  faulty,  and  in  all  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  turn  to  the  passage  quoted  to  verify 
his  readings.  A  century  later,  the  Emperor 
Yung-lo  determined  to  signalize  his  reign  by 
the  publication  of  an  encyclopaedia,  which  was 
intended  to  throw  Ma  Twan-lin's  undertaking 
into    the    shade.     An    imperial    commission,    con- 


640  The  Literature. 

sisting  of  upwards  of  two  thousand  members, 
was  appointed  to  carry  out  the  work,  and  at 
the  end  of  four  years  they  were  able  to  re- 
port to  the  emperor  the  completion  of  their 
labours,  which  were  represented  by  an  ency- 
clopaedia in  twenty-two  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  books.  Whether  the  difficulty 
and  expense  of  printing  so  huge  a  compila- 
tion, were  considered  to  be  insurmountable,  or 
whether  the  emperor  had  grown  tired  of  his 
project,  history  does  not  tell  us,  but  for  some 
reason  the  MS.  was  never  sent  to  press,  and 
was  allowed  to  lie  barren  and  useless  in  the 
imperial  library,  where  such  portions  of  it  as 
have  not  moulded  into  dust  remain  to  this 
day. 

Three  centuries  later,  K'ang-he  (1612-1723), 
the  second  emperor  of  the  present  Manchoo 
Dynasty,  conceived  the  idea  of  renewing  Yung- 
lo's  project,  and  like  that  emperor  he  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  give  effect  to  his  de- 
sign. Their  orders  were  simple,  though  their 
work  was  colossal.  It  was  required  of  them 
that  they  should  extract  from  everj^  work  of 
authority,  from  the  Tih  king  downwards,  all 
passages   bearing   on  the  six  thousand  one   hun- 


A    CHINESE    GENTLEMAN. 


Forty   Years'  Work.  543 

dred  and  nine  headings,  which  it  was  the  will 
of  K'ang-he  should  be  illustrated.  For  forty 
years  the  commissioners  toiled.  Meanwhile  K'ang- 
he  "  became  a  guest  on  high,"  and  his  son, 
Yung-ching,  had  been  five  years  upon  the 
throne  when  the  weary  commissioners  were 
able  to  write  "  Finis "  on  the  last  page  of 
the  5,020th  volume  of  the  Kin  ting  koo  kin 
t^oo  shoo  tseih  ching,  "  Imperially  ordered  ^  com- 
plete collection  of  ancient  and  modern  litera- 
ture, with  illustrations."  Tradition  says  that 
only  a  hundred  copies  of  this  work  were 
printed.  However  this  may  be,  the  copies  is- 
sued were  few  in  number,  and  were  all  dis- 
tributed as  imperial  presents  among  princes  of 
the  blood  and  the  highest  officials  in  the  em- 
pire. It  was  thus  many  years  before  a  copy 
found  its  way  into  the  market,  and  it  has 
only  been  in  obedience  to  stern  pecuniary  pres- 
sure that  of  late  two  or  three  copies  have 
been  offered  for  sale  at  Peking  by  the  de- 
scendants of  the  original  recipients.  Fortu- 
nately, through  the  instrumentality  of  the  late 
Mr.  Mayers,  Her  Majesty's  Chinese  Secretary 
of  Legation,  one  of  these  copies  was  secured 
for   the    trustees   of  the    British   Museum,    who. 


644  The  Literature. 

when  the  prevalence  in  China  of  the  agencies 
destructive  of  libraries  —  fire,  carelessness,  thieves, 
and  insects  —  is  remembered,  may  very  proba- 
bly before  many  years  prove  to  be  the  only 
possessors  of  a  complete  cop}'  of  this  rare  and 
valuable   work. 

In  arranging  their  materials,  the  commission- 
ers adopted  six  general  categories,  which  they 
sub-divided  into  thirty-two  sections,  as  follows : 
Categories  —  1.  The  Heavens  ,  2.  The  Earth  ; 
3.  Mankind ;  4.  Inanimate  nature ;  5.  Piiil- 
osophy ;  and  6.  Political  econoni}-.  Sections 
—  1.  The  heavenly  bodies;  2.  The  calendar; 
3.  Astronomy  and  mathematical  science ;  4. 
Astrology;  5.  The  earth;  6.  The  dominions 
of  China ;     7.    The   topography   of  the   empire ; 

8.  The   frontier   nations   and   foreign   countries ; 

9.  The  imperial  court ;  10.  The  imperial  build- 
ings ;  11.  Official  institutes  ;  12.  Domestic  laws ; 
13.  Private  relationships ;  14.  Genealogy  and 
biography  ;  15.  Mankind ;  16.  Womankind ;  17. 
Arts  and  divination  ;  18.  Religion  and  phe- 
nomena ;  19.  The  animal  kingdom ;  20.  The 
vegetable  kingdom ;  21.  Canonical  and  general 
literature ;  22.  Education  and  conduct ;  23. 
Belles-lettres ;    24.    Etymology  ;    25.    The    official 


Ensay  Writing.  54d 

examination  system  ;    26-^    The  sj'stem   of  official 
appointments ;    27.    Articles   of    food    and    com 
merce  ;    28.    Ceremonies ;    29.    Music ;    30.    Mili 
tary  organization  ;  31.  Administration  of  justice 
and   32.    Handicrafts. 

These  headings  sufficiently  describe  the  scope 
of  the  work,  which  contains  very  little  original 
matter,  but  consists  as  designed  by  K'ang-he, 
of  literary  extracts  bearing  on  each  subject, 
which  are  arranged  in  chronological  order,  so 
that  the  reader  has  laid  before  him  the  col- 
lective wisdom  of  every  writer  of  note  on  the 
subject  of  his  stud3\  The  accuracy  of  the 
quotations  forms  a  marked  contrast  to  all 
other  works  of  a  similar  kind,  and  we  have 
therefore  collected  in  one  thesaurus  a  trust- 
worthy and  exhaustive  rdsum^  of  Chinese  lit- 
erature. 

Next  to  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  essay- 
writing  is  the  most  important  aim  of  educa- 
tion in  China.  It  is  by  essays  that  the  de- 
grees are  mainly  determined  at  the  competitive 
examinations,  and  it  is  as  essayists  that  men 
win  the  highest  renown  in  the  field  of  litera- 
ture.    According    to     the     cut-and-dried    model 

upon     which    every    essay    should    be     framed, 
35 


546  The  Literature. 

the  writer,  after  stating  his  theme,  gives  a 
short  "  analysis "  of  it,  and  then  an  "  ampli- 
fication "  in  general  terms.  Next  follow  an  "  ex- 
planation "  with  a  postscript,  the  "  first  argu- 
ment," a  "re-assertion  of  the  theme,"  the  "second 
argument,"  and  the  "  third  argument."  These 
last  divisions  are  more  formal  than  real,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  see  any  difference  in  the 
subject-matter  between  the  first,  second,  and 
third  arguments ;  but  the  inexorable  laws  of 
essay-writing,  confirmed  by  centuries  of  habit, 
have  made  their  outward  observance  indispen- 
sable ;  and  a  competitor  at  an  examination 
would  as  soon  dream  of  throwing  doubt  on  the 
wisdom  of  Confucius  as  of  disregarding  them. 
As  has  already  been  said,  the  themes  given  at 
the  examinations  are  invariably  texts  taken 
from  th6  canonical  books.  Competitors  know, 
therefore,  the  style  and  drift  of  the  texts  on 
which  they  will  have  to  write,  but  tliey  find 
further  help  in  the  immense  quantity  of  suc- 
cessful essays  which  are  constantly  published. 
These,  with  the  essays  by  celebrated  writers, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  their  collected  works, 
form  quite  a  literature.  Unfortunately  the  cir- 
cumstances of  their  production,   and   the   preju- 


Poetry  before  Prose.  647 

dices  which  surround  their  authors,  rob  them 
of  that  freedom  of  expression  and  breadth  of 
thought  which  might  be  expected  to  give  them 
point   and  value. 

It  is  fair  to  assume,  though  dates  altogether 
fail  to  help  us,  that  as  in  all  other  countries 
so  in  China  the  first  literary  efforts  of  the 
people  were  in  the  shape  of  poetry.  Some  of 
the  odes  of  the  She  king  carry  us  back  to 
very  remote  times,  and  even  before  these  found 
expression  in  words,  there  probably  existed  a 
still  earlier  stratum  of  verse.  As  has  already 
been  explained,  it  is  very  difficult  to  criticise 
minutely  the  merits  and  measures  of  these  old 
odes,  owing  to  the  changes  which  both  the 
sounds  and  the  characters  have  undergone; 
but  we  find  that  the  lines  for  the  most  part 
consisted  of  only  four  characters  each.  When 
the  language  lost  its  polysyllabic  character, 
such  a  measure  was  plainly  inadequate  to  give 
the  rhj'^thm  which  is  necessar}-  for  polished 
versification,  and  consequently  the  common 
metre  was  changed  to  lines  of  five  characters, 
and  later  still  to  lines  of  seven.  This  last 
metre  was  generally  adopted  by  the  poets  of 
the    T'ang   Dynasty    (A.  D.  618-907),   the  golden 


548  The  Literature. 

age    of    poetry,    and    has    since    continued    the 
favorite    measure. 

Though  it  is  true  that  the  spoken  lar.gnage 
is  by  no  means  monosyllabic,  tlie  characters  do 
as  a  rule  represent  single  syllables,  and  it  may 
therefore  at  first  sight  appear  strange  that  lines 
of  seven  monosyllabic  words  can  ever  be 
rhythmical ;  but  the  laws  of  Chinese  verse- 
making  are  such  as  to  ensure  a  pleasing  ca- 
dence in  the  lines,  and  the  tones  of  the  char- 
acters give  a  musical  intonation  to  them. 
Strict  rules  are  followed  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  characters,  and  in  verses  of  seven  syl- 
lables a  csesural  pause  occurs  after  the  fourth 
syllable,  which  serves  to  divide  also  the  gram- 
matical sense  of  the  verse.  Rhymes  are  ob- 
served at  the  ends  of  lines,  but  in  Chinese  an 
element  in  rh^^ming  exists  apart  from  the  identity 
of  sound  which  is  unknown  in  European  lan- 
guages ;  and  that  is,  that  in  order  to  constitute 
a  rhyme  the  similarly  sounding  syllables  must 
be  in  the  same  tone.  For  example.  Fang 
and  Kwang  rhyme  because  they  are  both 
pronounced  in  the  even  tone,  but  a  poet  who 
attempted  to  make  Fang  (even  tone),  and 
Kwang    (rising  tone),  rhyme,   would    be  scouted 


On  the  Phoenix  Tower.  649 

as  an  igorant  fellow.  As  a  rule,  all  the  lines 
do  not  rhyme.  More  commonly  than  not, 
alternate  lines  beginning  with  the  second  are 
made  to  rhyme,  while  no  regard  is  paid  to 
the  sounds,  apart  from  the  tones,  of  the 
concluding  syllables  of  the  intermediate  verses. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  a  stanza  in 
eight  lines,  in  which  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  and  eighth  lines 
rhyme,  while  the  first,  as  is  often  the  case,  gives 
the  cue  to  the  rhyming  syllable..  The  ode  is  by 
the  celebrated  poet  of  the  T'ang  Dynasty,  Le 
Tai-pih,  and  is  entitled  "  On  ascending  the 
Phoenix  tower  at   Nanking":  — 

Fung  hwaiig  tai  shang  —  fung  hwang  yew 
The  phoenixes  are  on  the  tower  —  the  phoenixes  wander. 

Fung  kii  t'ai   k'ung  —  keang  tsze  lew 
The  male  bird  goes,  the  tower  is  empty  —  the  river  alone  flows 
'by. 

Woo  kung  hwa  tsaou  —  mat  yew   king 
[So]  in  Woo's  palace  the  flowers  and  shrubs  —  bury  the  hidden 
paths, 
Tsin  tai   e  kwan  —  ch'ing  koo  kew 
.jAnd  methinks  I  see]  Tsin    dynasty  clothes  and  caps  —  filling 
the  ancient  hill. 
San  shan  pan   loh  —  ts'ing   t'een  wai 
The  three  mountains   in  half  separate  —  and  the  azure  sky  is 
beyond. 


550  The  Literature. 

Urh   shuy  chun  fun  —  pih   loo  chow 
Thr  two  streams  midway  divide  —  for  the  white  egret's  Isle. 

T'sung   wei  fow  yun  —  niiig  pe  jih 
In  all  directions  are  floating  clouds  —  sufficient  to  obscure  the 
sun. 

Ch'ang-ngan   puh  keen  —  she  jin  ts'ow 
Ch'ang-ngan  is  out  of  sight  —  and  the  envoy  is  sorrowful. 

In  this  stanza  we  have  all  the  leading  char- 
acteristics of  Chinese  poetry.  The  last  syllable 
of  the  first  line  gives  the  cue  to  the  rhj-me 
which  is  followed  in  the  second,  fourth,  sixth, 
and  eighth  lines,  by  the  words  lew^  keu\  chou\ 
fsow,  wliich  are  all  in  the  same  tone,  tlie  even 
tone.  After  the  fourth  syllable  in  each  line  is 
a  marked  csesural  pause,  by  observing  which 
the  rhythmical  harmony  of  the  verses  is  much 
increased,  and  which  coincides  with  a  break 
in  the  sentence.  There  is  also  the  parallelism 
in  which  Chinese  poets  delight.  "We  have  "  the 
flowers  and  shrubs  of  the  Woo  Palace,"  and 
"  the  clothes  and  caps  of  the  Tsin  Dynastj- ;  " 
we  have  the  "  three  mountains  in  half  j^epa- 
rate,"  and  "  the  two  streams  midway  divide." 
Not  only  is  this  a  good  specimen  of  the  me- 
chanical peculiarities  of  Chinese  poetry,  but  it 
gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  kind  of  stuff  Chinese 
poetry  is  made  of.     There  is  nothing  striking  in 


Perfunctory  Poetry.  551 

thought  or  sentiment ;  such  merits  are  seldom  en- 
countered ;  the  main  object  being  to  conform  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  recognized  canons  of  the 
art,  and  to  perfect  the  diction.  This  perfunc- 
tory way  of  manufacturing  poetry  is  inevitable 
in  a  country  where  every  student  has  as  a 
part  of  his  education  to  learn  to  write  it. 
By  the  flood  of  indifferent  verses  which  annu- 
ally inundate  the  empire  the  national  taste  is 
destroyed,  and  the  ordinary  run  of  poetry  has 
been  reduced  to  the  level  of  schoolboys'  exer- 
cises. So  fully  is  this  recognized,  that  diction- 
aries of  poetical  quotations  are  as  essential  to 
a  poet's  literary  workroom  as  a  Gradus  ad 
Parnassuni  is  to  the  equipment  of  a  fourth-form 
English   schoolboy. 

Under  the  present  dynasty  poetry  as  well 
as  other  branches  of  literature  is  held  to 
have  revived,  and  the  following  quotation  has 
been  taken  from  a  collection  as  a  good  speci- 
men of  the  present  condition  of  the  muse  in 
China :  — 

Shan  ku  tsin  jih  —  woo  kaou  muh ; 
She  nii  k'een  lo  —  foo  maou  wuh. 
Faug  ts'aou  ch'un  she  —  shin  pe  mum; 
Tue  miug  tsze  pan  —  niei  hwa  suh. 


652  The  Literature. 

In  the  mountains  I  live  all  the  day  —  humble  and  rude  is  my 

lot; 
The  creepers  my  maiden  entwines  —  which  cover  my  primitive 

cot. 
lu  spring-time  the  sweet-smelling  plants  —  completely  the  door 

over-creep. 
The  moon's  beams  alone  fill  the  slcy  —  while  the  plum-blossoms 

peacefully  sleep. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  poetry  spoken  of 
above  there  are  a  kind  of  poetical  composition 
known  as  Foo^  which  has  a  metre  of  four  and  six 
feet  in  alternate  lines  ;  irregular  poems,  termed 
Tioo  tsze^  where  the  rhyme  recurs  at  the  ends 
of  lines  of  various  lengths ;  and  Ts'ze,  a  kind 
of  roundelay  in  the  extempore  composition  of 
which  scholars  amuse  themselves  at  their  fes- 
tive gatherings. 

The  Drama  received  a  comparatively  late 
development  in  China,  as  it  was  not  until  the 
latter  end  of  the  T'ang  Dynasty  that  a  Chi- 
nese Thespis  arranged  the  wild  dances  and 
songs,  the  precursors  of  the  drama,  into  con- 
nected and  orderly  plays.  From  this  period 
the  art  of  dramatic  writing  improved  until  the 
time  of  the  Mongol  Dynasty  founded  by 
Jenghiz  Khan,  when  it  may  be  said  to  have 
reached    its    highest    excellence ;    but    even    in 


The  Chinese  Drama.  553 

the  most  finished  works  of  the  best  period 
there  is,  as  tlie  author  has  stated  in  another 
connexion,  a  want  of  "  those  touches  of  fancy 
and  that  play  of  imagination  which  we  look 
for  in  the  works  of  European  playwrights. 
No  great  author  has  arisen  to  teach  them  to 
analyze  the  motives  which  sway  men  in  the 
concerns  of  every-day  life,  and  novelists  and 
playwrights,  therefore,  are  content  to  make 
their  characters  move,  act,  and  converse  at 
will,  without  troubling  themselves  to  make  a 
psychological  study  of  the  thoughts  which  in- 
fluence them.  Thus  even  in  the  best  plays 
the '  characters  are  moved  about  in  a  some- 
what disconnected  and  arbitrary  way  to  suit 
the  design  of  the  author,  too  often  in  defiance 
of  the  probabilities,  and  with  a  total  disre- 
gard of  the  old-fashioned  unities.  If  they  are 
unable  to  reach  a  high  standard  of  dramatic 
writing,  they  show  considerable  skill  in  invent- 
ing incidents  and  in  introducing  clever  and 
humorous  dialogues.  Thus  they  startle  and 
amuse  more  than  they  interest,  and  cater  for 
the   eve   and  ear  rather   than  for   the  mind."  * 


* "  The  Chinese  Drama,"  by  the  Author,  in  the  Contemporary  Review,  for 
January,  1880. 


654  The  Literature. 

The  absence  of  all  scenery  on  the  Chinese 
stage  necessitates  the  awkward  expedient  of. 
putting  into  the  mouth  of  eacli  character  as 
he  appears  a  monologue  explaining  who  he  is, 
where  he  is,  and  the  object  of  his  being  in  that 
particular  place.  In  the  same  way  a  change  of 
scene  has  to  be  indicated  by  an  explicit  an- 
nouncement by  the  actor,  in  some  such  form 
as  the  following :  — "  Now  I  am  at  such  a!id 
such  a  place."  These  interruptions,  as  may  well 
be  understood,  materially  mar  the  literary  effect 
of  a  Chinese  play,  which  otherwise  is  often 
not   without    merit. 

The  best  collection  of  dramas  is  known  as 
the  "Hundred  Plays  of  the  Yuen  Dynast}'." 
The  tone  of  these  is  higher  and  'purer  than 
most  of  the  modern  dramatic  writings,  which 
are  too  often  grossly  indecent,  but  even  in 
these,  many  of  the  incidents  introduced  would, 
if  judged  by  a  European  standard,  be  consid- 
ered coarse.  Though  the  moral  teaching  may 
not  be  all  that  could  be  desired,  the  audience 
is  yet  taught  that  a  sure  nemesis  follows  evil 
deeds,  and  that  to  live  happilv  one  must  live 
virtuously. 

The     same     poverty     of     imagination     whicli 


No  Characterization  in  the  Plays.        555 

marks  tbe  poetry  is  observable  also  in  the 
novels  and  tales.  A  Chinese  novelist  never 
attempts  to  make  analyses  of  his  characters, 
and  there  is  no  interweaving  of  a  subtle  plot 
in  his  pages.  His  canvas  is  covered  with  a 
succession  of  incidents  more  or  less  isolated, 
all  of  which  are  depicted  in  the  broadest 
colors.  No  softening  lines  or  gradual  shad- 
ings mitigate  the  villainy  or  the  profligate 
characters,  or  the  supreme  excellence  of  the 
virtuous  personages.  The  bad  are  as  incapable 
of  doing  anything  but  evil  as  the  other  sort 
are  of  doing  anything  but  good.  They  are  all 
either  very  black  or  very  white.  The  hero, 
who  in  every  case  is  as  marvellously  accom- 
plished as  an  Admirable  Crichton,  is  per- 
fectly virtuous,  as  strong  as  Hercules,  as  brave 
as  Achilles,  and  a  very  Nestor  for  vrisdom. 
As  the  end  of  all  Chinese  novels  is  to  pro- 
claim the  triumph  of  virtue,  it  becomes  the  in- 
variable rSIe  of  the  hero  to  defend  the  op- 
pressed, to  make  straight  the  crooked  paths  of 
corrupt  and  vicious  officials,  and  to  redress 
every  wrong  that  presents  itself  to  him.  At 
the  examinations  he  takes  the  highest  honors, 
and    rises   to    a   supreme    position    in    the   state. 


556  The  Literature. 

Imperial  favors  are  lavished  on  him,  or,  if 
for  a  moment  the  wiles  of  the  first  villain 
cloud  his  career,  the  mist  is  soon  cleared 
away,  to  his  additional  renown  and  to  his 
enemy's    infinite   discomfiture. 

The  best  novel  which  is  translatable  is  the 
Haou  K'etv  ehuen,  which  has  been  rendered 
into  English  by  Sir  John  Davis,  among  others. 
In  this  work  the  chief  interest  centres  in  a 
succession  of  endeavors  made  by  the  villain 
of  the  story  to  prevent  the  marriage  of  the 
heroine  with  the  hero,  and  to  carry  her  cff 
as  his  own  bride.  The  inevitable  result  fol- 
lows ;  the  villain  is  defeated,  and  the  hero  and 
heroine  receive  at  the  hands  of  the  emperor 
the  reward  of  their  deeds ;  and  the  work 
comes  to  a  gratifying  end  which  can,  perhaps,  be 
best  shown  b}^  a  quotation.  In  the  words  of 
Sir  John  Davis's  translation,  "  Teih-chungyii,  his 
bride,  and  the  assembled  court  then  bowed 
down  and  acknowledged  the  imperial  bounty, 
and  the  hum  of  joy  and  gratulation  resembled 
the  distant  roll  of  thunder.  The  attendants 
had  received  their  orders,  and  as  they  filed  off 
in  pairs,  tlie  ornamental  lanterns  in  all  their 
radiance,    the  harmonious   band    in    full    sound, 


Joy  and  G-ratulation. 


657 


and  the  marshalled  banners  in  their  variegated 
splendor,  escorted  the  renowned  and  happy- 
couple  as  they  proceeded  homewards,  attended 
by   a   vast   company." 

The  choicest  bud,  unblown,  exhales  no  sweets, 
No  radiance  can  the  untried  gem  display ; 
Misfortune,  like  the  winter  cold  that  binds 
The  embryo  fragrance  of  the  flower,  doth  lend 
A  fresher  charm  to  fair  prosperity. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SKETCH   OF    THE    HISTORY   OF    THE    CHINESE    EMPIRE 

FROM  1875  TO  1894  inclusive.* 

[-HUNG-CHANG,  who  as  governor  of 
Kiang-Su  had  aided  Gordon  to  crush  the 
Taiping  rebellion — during  which  it  has 
been  estimated  twenty  million  persons  perished — and  who 
was  known  by  the  name  of  Li-Futai,  succeeded  to  the 
office  of  Prime  Minister.  The  Formosa  difficulty  with 
Japan  was  now  settled,  in  accordance  with  the  terms, 
however,  as  dictated  by  the  Mikado,  viz.,  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Japanese  troops  and  the  acceptance  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  pounds  as  indemnity. 

With  characteristic  inclination  for  attacking  foreign- 
ers some  Chinese  soldiers  at  Ching-Kiang  assaulted  the 
American  Consul  and  his  wife,  further  trouble  only 
being  averted  by  the  prompt  dispatch  of  American  and 
British  men-of-war  from  Shanghai,  when  the  reparation 
demanded  was  unhesitatingly  extended.  The  great 
Weising  lottery  scheme,  for  the  drawing  of  names  of  the 

♦Continued  from  page  86. 

558 


Li-Hung-  Chang.  559 

successiul  candidates  at  official  examinations,  became  a 
public  scandal  in  1875.  The  profits  were  found  to  be 
enormous,  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  which — 
according  to  Boulger — found  its  way  into  the  pockets  of 
the  Viceroy  of  Canton,  as  hush  money.  These  flagrant 
abuses,  together  with  the  inadequate  system  of  examina- 
tion, induced  Li-Hung-Chang  to  petition  for  the  intro- 
duction of  western  studies  in  the  schools,  and  the  exam- 
ination of  candidates  in  the  sciences.  In  his  memorial, 
he  said: — "Since  the  opening  of  our  connection  with 
foreign  nations,  our  literary  men  and  officers  have  con- 
tinued to  adhere  to  traditional  ideas.  In  arrogant 
language  and  high-sounding  phrases  they  have  derided 
foreigners,  and  regard  it  as  beneath  their  dignity  to  notice 
them,  and  they  are  therefore  at  a  loss  what  to  do  when 
foreign  affairs  have  to  be  disposed  of." 

China  still  continued  to  be  the  theatre  of  chronic  re- 
volt and  endemic  disaster.  In  1876,  Jakub  Kushbegi — 
Yakoob  Beg — the  Amir  of  Kashgaria,  with  an  army  of 
forty  thousand,  defeated  the  Chinese  troops  sent  to  sup- 
press the  rebellion,  and  an  additional  tax  was  levied  to 
quell  the  local  uprisings  in  Kwang-Tung  and  Shansi. 
At  Gumti,  the  Kashgarian  rebels  were  later  bombarded 
and  defeated  with  a  loss  of  six  thousand  men,  and 
Urumtsi  surrendered.  After  a  great  loss  of  Chinese 
troops,  commanded  by  Kinshun,who,  in  1874,  under  the 


560  The  Tungan  Annihilated. 

direction  of  Tso-Tsang-Tang,  had  commenced  his  march 
across  the  desert  from  Sou  chow,  the  stronghold  of  Manas, 
finally  capitulated,  and  Haiyen,  the  Mahomed  an  leader, 
left  the  shelter  of  the  fort  and  came  out  with  three  thou- 
sand of  his  men  to  negotiate  for  terms  of  peace,  "Bear- 
ing arms,  and  with  their  women  and  children  in  the 
center  of  the  phalanx,  the  Chinese  became  suspicious,"  or 
at  least  offered  the  plea  of  doubt  in  extenuation  of  their 
subsequent  barbarity.  The  Tungan  were  surrounded, 
and  as  they  attempted  to  cut  their  way  out  were  ruth- 
lessly annihilated.  Contemporaneously  with  these  events 
drought  and  famine  had  overtaken  the  district  of 
Houan,  flanking  the  course  of  the  Yellow  river,  creating 
an  unparalleled  dearth,  while  a  fearful  flood  visited 
Foo-Chow,  five  thousand  bodies  being  discovered  at  one 
point  alone,  aft«r  the  assuaging  of  the  water. 

The  first  railway  constructed  in  China  was  completed 
in  1876.  Eleven  miles  being  equipped  between  Shang- 
hai and  Woosung,  but  the  congratulations  of  its  pro- 
jectors were  of  short  duration;  the  native  officials 
stopped  further  operations,  on  the  pretense  of  assuming 
its  management,  and  the  rails  were  finally  removed  to 
Formosa.  A  perceptible  spirit  of  progress  and  im- 
provement was  now  visible.  Kiungchow,  on  the  Island 
of  Hainan,  was  made  a  treaty  port,  as  was  also  Paklui, 
Wuhu  and  Wenchow,  together  with  Ichang,  one  thou- 


Treaty  Ports  on  the  Yang-tse-Kiang.  561 

sand  miles  from  the  sea,  the  eiitrep6t  for  the  province 
of  Szechuen,  the  "  land  of  plenty,"  and  for  the  flanking 
valley  of  the  navigable  Yang-tse-kiang  with  its  millions 
of  industrious  people. 

By  the  pacific  opening  up  of  new  territory  through 
the  humanizing  influence  of  trade,  travelling  was  now 
attended  with  less  danger.  Captain  Gill,  who  undertook 
a  journey  through  Southwest  China  into  Burmah,  expe- 
riencing no  practical  opposition. 

Another  famine  of  still  greater  severity  than  that  of 
the  previous  year,  and  consequent  upon  the  destruction 
of  the  crops,  now  appeared  in  Shantung.  The  sale  of  cloth- 
ing succeeded  the  sale  of  children,  and  underground  pits 
of  refuge  were  constructed  for  shelter  from  the  cold. 
In  the  city  of  Chung-Chow  four  of  these  contained 
nearly  three  hundred  persons,  and  notwithstanding  the 
deaths  that  resulted  from  the  foulness  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  indescribable  filthiness,  as  fast  as  a  corpse  was 
borne  to  the  surface,  crowds  half  frozen  and  famished, 
men  and  women,  would  struggle  for  the  vacatit  place. 

Tso-Tsang-Tang,  having  pacified  the  Northwest  and 
overthrown  the  Turgani,  now  marched  onwards  to  Sun- 
garia,  described  by  R^clus  as  "the  broad  gateway 
leading  from  the  Chinese  to  the  western  world."  Ya- 
koob  Beg  having  died  in  May,  little  resistance  was  offered 
by  his  two  sons,  who  were  busy  with  an  internecine 


562        Conquests  in  Turkestan  and  Manchuria. 

war,  and  after  feeble  opposition  the  city  of  Kashgar 
was  taken,  on  December  17th,  by  an  army  of  twelve 
thousand  men  under  the  generalship  of  Lien-Sho-Daryn. 
After  ten  years  of  insurrection,  and  a  joint  display  of 
"unexampled  cowardice  and  unheard  of  barbarities," 
the  Chinese  had  at  last  brought  to  a  "  triumphant  con- 
clusion, the  campaign  undertaken  for  the  reassertions  of 
their  authority  over  the  Mahomedan  rebels."  Not  sat- 
isfied, however,  with  their  conquests  in  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan, the  Imperial  troops,  flushed  with  their  successes, 
pushed  yet  further  beyond  the  Great  Wall  and  Man- 
churia, into  the  more  remote  metropolitan  province  of 
Hi,  with  a  view  of  its  ultimate  recovery  from  the  tempo- 
rary custody  of  Russia.  To  facilitate  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  design,  Chung  How  was  dispatched  upon 
the  delicate  mission  of  plenipotentiary  to  St.  Petersburg, 
to  negotiate  for  its  possible  official  and  pacific  transfer. 
Though  Kashgar  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese, 
Kuldja  was  still  retained  by  the  Russians,  but  held 
subject  to  pledged  evacuation  so  soon  as  China  had 
shown  her  ability  to  restore  and  maintain  order  by  force 
of  arms.  But  Kuldja  was  a  place  of  some  strategical 
importance,  and  the  disinclination  on  the  part  of  Russia 
to  surrender  her  authority  led  to  complications  which 
threatened  to  interrupt  the  hitherto  friendly  relations 
existing  between  the  two  governments.     Chung  How, 


Russia  Cedes  Kuldja.  663 

unfortunately  for  himself,  regarded  territorial  expansion 
as  a  quite  secondary  consideration,  and  thought  little  of 
frontier  defences  or  lines  of  demarkation,  so  upon  his 
uncalled  for  return  with  a  promise  of  the  acceptance  of 
a  five  million  rouble  indemnity,  he  was  charged  with 
"  disobeying  instructions,"  and  would  have  lost  his  head, 
but  for  the  timely  intercession  of  the  British  sovereign. 
The  Marquis  Tseng,  by  a  subsequent  and  successful  dis- 
play of  diplomacy,  succeeded  in  1880  in  obtaining  from 
Russia  "  the  almost  unqualified  territorial  concession  of 
Hi."  Kuldja  was  retroceded  to  China,  and  the  capital 
transferred  to  Suitung.  But  Russia  exacted  an '  indem- 
nity of  ten  million  roubles,  and  twelve  thousand  four 
hundred  and  sixty  square  miles  of  territory  on  the  Black 
Irtysh,  in  the  Tekkes  river  valley,  besides  retaining  special 
treaty  rights,  and  a  Russian  Consul  remains  in  residence 
at  Kashgar. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  valuable  commercial 
privileges  conceded  to  Russia  at  this  time  alone  pre- 
vented war.  Besides  Kalgan,  another  right  of  way  at 
the  western  end  of  the  Great  Wall  at  Souchow  was  per- 
mitted. The  Russian  fleet  concentrated  at  Vladivos- 
tock  was  the  "  most  powerful  ever  sent  to  Eastern  seas," 
while  a  small  intermediary  force  of  Russian  troops  could 
have  cut  off  all  communication  from  the  Chinese  Central 
Asian  army  of  sixty  thousand  men — with  the  Chinese 


564  Chinese  Turkestan  and  Mongolia. 

frontier.  Had  hostilities  eventuated,  Russia  could 
readily  have  occupied  Northern  Corea,  and  seized  Port 
Lazareff  with  its  unequalled  harbor,  situated  only  one 
hundred  miles  south  of  the  boundary  of  Russian  Tar- 
tary,  on  the  sea  of  Japan, 

Colonel  Gordon,  who  had  been  summoned  to  advise 
with  Li-Hung-Chang,  declared,  much  to  the  ill-concealed 
chagrin  of  the  Chinese  soldiers,  that  "  they  had  deceived 
themselves  aa  to  their  boasted  progress  in  the  military 
art,  and  were  entirely  deluded  in  their  belief  that  their 
army  and  munitions  of  war  were  on  a  par  with  those  of 
European  nations,  for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were  as 
defective  and  primitive  as  ever." 

Of  the  area  and  population  of  Chinese  Turkestan  little 
is  known,  the  trade  from  India  having  to  enter  by  the 
lofty  pass  of  Karakoram  at  an  altitude  of  eighteen  thou- 
sand five  hundred  feet,  or  by  the  obstacle  route  through 
Kashmir  and  Hunza,  or  by  the  alternative  and  almost 
inaccessible  passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush.  The  western 
boundary  lies  in  the  debatable  land  of  the  Pamirs.  Of 
greater  Mongolia,  with  its  elevated  plateau  of  extraordi- 
nary altitude,  seldom  less  than  ten  thousand  feet,  and  its 
millions  of  a  nomad  population  of  Buddhists,  still  less  is 
known.  Lhassa  is  the  religious  center  and  capital,  and  the 
Mongols  still  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  the  Grand 
Lama  of  Tibet. 


Trade  tirith  India  and  the  United  States.      565 

Notwithstanding  the  imperial  edict  forbidding  the 
cultivation  of  the  poppy  in  Kashgar,  and  the  official  de- 
struction of  the  crop,  the  evil  continued  with  little  real 
abatement.  The  importations  from  India  steadily  in- 
creased, and  as  the  crop,  is  seven  times  more  remunera- 
tive than  grain,  "its  suppression  was,  a  problem." 
While  its  importation  into  both  Russia  and  the  United 
States  was  forbidden  by  treaty,  the  income  from  its 
cultivation  had  reached  nine  million  pounds  in  1881,  in 
the  face  of  a  tariff,  the  prohibitory  usefulness  of  which, 
however,  was  nullified  by  the  qualifying  provision  of  a 
"maximum  rate."  Despite  the  malign  influence  of  the 
drug,  the  industrial  influences  of  machinery  continued 
to  attract  the  people.  In  1879,  the  first  steam  cotton- 
mill  was  established,  with  a  factory  containing  one  hun- 
dred looms.  Whether  this  contributed  to  the  enormous 
falling  off  in  the  importations  of  American  cotton-goods 
— they  declined  from  six  hundred  and  thirty-three  thou- 
sand pieces  in  1879  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-two 
thousand  pieces  in  1880-— or  whether  an  increased  do- 
mestic demand  in  the  United  States  was  solely  responsi- 
ble, the  fact  remains,  that  a  measure  of  industrial  prog- 
ress hitherto  "retarded  by  the  abuses  of  Chinese 
officialism,  as  well  as  by  the  conservative  prejudices  of 
the  people,"  was  now  apparent  in  the  adoption  of  west- 
ern arts  and  commercial  methods. 


566       Death  of  the  Dmvdger  Empress  Tsi  An. 

A  revolt,  which  for  a  time  assumed  a  threatening 
character,  occurred  in  1879  among  the  Hakkas,  a  tribe 
from  Central  Asia,  practically  a  band  of  interlopers, 
who  became  dissatisfied  with  the  lands  allotted  to  them 
on  the  Island  of  Hainan,  a  part  of  the  province  of  Can- 
ton. They  were  soon  subdued.  In  May  of  the  same 
year  General  Grant  visited  China,  and  was  made  the  re- 
cipient of  attentions,  such  as  were  never  before  bestowed 
upon  a  foreigner ;  he  was  banqueted  at  Tientsin  and  Pe- 
king. A  treaty,  relating  chiefly  to  the  status  of  the 
Chinese  in  Cuba,  was  concluded  with  Spain,  as  were  also 
two  others  with  the  United  States  in  1880,  providing  for 
the  treatment  of  Chinese  emigrants,  and  trade  relations. 
The  navy  was  reinforced  by  four  new  iron-clads  of  Eng- 
lish build,  and  thirty-nine  miles  of  telegraph  lines  were 
constructed.  The  regretable  death  of  the  Dowager  Em- 
press Tsi  An,  remarkable  for  her  firmness  and  resolution, 
left  the  Empress  Tse  Hi  sole  regent,  and  preluded  the 
complex  condition  of  affairs  in  Corea,  the  "forbidden 
land  "  which  China  was  called  upon  to  face. 

The  King  of  Corea,  fearful  of  Russian  aggression, 
readily  accepted  a  proposed  treaty  with  China  as  an 
alternative  and  lesser  evil,  and  announced — acting  under 
Chinese  coercion — ^that  "  under  the  guidance  of  Chinese 
encouragement"  he  was  prepared  to  throw  open  the  Co- 
rean  porta  to  outside  trading  countries.     The  text  of  this 


China,  Japan  and  the  Corea.  567 

treaty  was  carried  to  the  court  of  Seoul  by  Commodore 
Schufeldt,  an  American  naval  officer,  and  was  duly 
signed.  The  dominant  and  equally  transparent  policy 
of  Li-Hung-Chang  at  once  aroused  the  jealousy  of 
Japan,  who  claimed  to  have  equal  voice  with  China  in 
the  Corean  control  and  hurried  a  fleet  and  army  to 
threaten  the  Corean  capital  and  assert  its  rights.  This 
was  followed  by  a  counter-display  on  the  part  of  China 
with  a  fleet  of  gun-boats  and  five  thousand  troops,  and 
the  question  of  the  undivided  suzerainty  of  the  penin- 
sula was  at  last  made  a  living  bone  of  contention,  des- 
tined to  culminate  later  on  in  the  great  war  of  1894-95 
and  China's  complete  humiliation.  The  intervention  of 
foreign  diplomatists  averted  the  threatened  rupture, 
though  China,  determined  upon  asserting  in  some  way 
its  right  to  material  acquisition,  seized  the  person  of  Tai- 
Wung-Kun,  the  father  of  the  king,  and  bore  him  as  a 
temporary  hostage  to  the  palace  at  Peking.  The  open- 
ing of  the  treaty  ports  to  the  powers,  gave  an  excuse  for 
a  cessation  of  belligerent  display,  and  once  again  the  old 
time  jealousies  of  China  and  Japan  were  permitted  to 
slumber. 

In  1882,  the  French  decided  to  establish  a  definite 
protectorate  over  Tonquin.  "  Indo-China  was  an  invit- 
ing field,"  writes  Boulger,  "and  the  weakness  of  the 
kingdom    of  Annam    was    too    great   a   temptation." 


568  Temporary  Commercial  Panic. 

French  expansion  in  China  had  long  been  regarded  aa 
a  field  for  "great  advantage  at  little  comparative  risk." 
These  and  other  domestic  troubles  seriously  affected 
trade  and  helped  to  precipitate  a  commercial  panic.  A 
financial  crisis  followed  and  interest  rose  to  thirty- 
five  per  cent.  Innumerable  joint  stock  enterprises  had 
been  exploited.  Paper,  glass,  and  cotton  factories, 
and  gold  and  silver  mines,  had  tempted  excessive  specu- 
lation, and  the  reckless  investment  of  native  capital 
under  native  management  proved  disastrously  unprofit- 
able, while  owing  to  a  disease  which  attacked  the  silk- 
worms the  quantity  of  silk  exported  amounted  to  less 
than  one-half  of  the  shipments  of  former  years.  Anti- 
European  riots  disturbed  Canton,  and  were  only  checked 
by  the  presence  of  British  and  French  gun-boats. 
Shanghai,  however,  distinguished  itself  by  its  encourage- 
ment of  higher  education,  the  American  University 
established  by  the  Rev.  Professor  Allen  receiving  the  lib- 
eral support  of  the  Chinese  merchants. 

The  French  meanwhile  had  discovered  that  the  Songcoi 
or  Red  river  presented  facilities  for  penetrating  the  rich 
province  of  Yunnan,  its  mineral  wealth  was  a  sore  temp- 
tation, and  so,  under  guise  of  establishing  "  a  protectorate 
of  China,  they  captured  the  town  of  Hanoi,  the  nominal 
capital  of  Tonquin,  and  situated  at  the  delta  of  the  river. 
The  relation  of  Tonquin  to  China  was  similar  to  that 


French  Invade  Tonquin.  569 

borne  by  Corea.  After  the  death,  in  July,  1883,  of  King 
Tuduc,  who  had  become  "subservient  to  the  French," 
the  Annamese,  encouraged  by  certain  reverses  of  the 
French  troopS  near  the  capital  were  encouraged  into  a 
display  of  hostility,  but  which  proved  of  brief  duration. 
The  court  city  of  Hue  surrendered,  and  by  the  terms  of  a 
promptly  concluded  treaty  the  new  king  became  in  due 
turn  a  dependent  of  France.  Meanwhile  the  engage- 
ment with  the  Black  Flags  at  Sontag  resulted  in  the  de- 
feat of  the  Chinese  troops,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  on  behalf 
of  France  was  entered  into  in  May,  by  Admiral  Four- 
nier  and  the  Chinese  government.  But  the  treaty  did 
not  serve  to  unravel  the  diplomatic  tangle.  China 
announced  an  "  unofficial  war  with  France,"  and  threat- 
ened, through  Marquis  Tseng,  to  declare  actual  war  if  its 
garrisons  were  attacked,  while  M.  Ferry  retaliated  by 
threatening  the  exaction  of  an  indemnity  for  the  irregu- 
lar hostilities  in  Tonquin.  Aft«r  the  capture  of  Bacninh, 
the  occupation  of  Langson  was  stipulated  for,  and  a 
French  force  under  Colonel  Dugenne  advanced  upon  the 
place,  declining  to  await  the  receipt  by  the  Chinese  of 
instructions  from  Peking  authorizing  its  evacuation. 
The  place  was  captured,  a  misunderstanding  in  regard  to 
dates  being  the  excuse  offered  for  its  premature  seizure. 
Neither  government  being  able  to  come  to  terms  the 
President  of  the  United  States  was  appealed  to  by  China 


570  Bombardment  of  the  Min  Forts. 

to  act  as  mediator  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
treaty.  The  request  was  acceded  to  upon  the  condition 
that  it  could  be  proved  that  China  had  not  violated  the 
terms  of  the  convention.  To  this  France  objected,  and 
through  M.  Jules  Ferry  demanded  the  absurd  indemnity 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  francs.  This  was  in- 
dignantly refused,  and  a  compromise  offer  of  three  mil- 
lion five  hundred  thousand  francs  was  subsequently 
offered  and  accepted. 

During  a  quasi  period  of  peace  the  French  fleet  under 
Admiral  Courbet.on  an  alleged  pacific  mission,  had,  by  a 
stratagem,  taken  up  a  position  beyond  the  Chinese  arsenal 
and  fleet  on  the  Min  river  above  Foochow,  from  which 
strategic  point,  on  the  18th  of  July,  immediately  after 
the  announcement  of  hostilities  and  the  French  ultima- 
tum, took  advantage  of  its  position  and  raked  the  Min 
forts,  which  were  unable  to  train  their  guns  in  reply. 
This  lamentable  lack  of  French  chivalry  resulted  in 
an  estimated  loss  to  the  Chinese  of  one  thousand  killed 
and  three  thousand  wounded.  The  French  lost  seven ! 
Hitherto  there  being  no  formal  declaration  of  war  the 
French  had  made  use  of  Hong-Kong  as  a  base  of  pro- 
tective operations.  The  manifest  unfairness  of  the  Min 
episode  was  resented  by  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  the  British 
representative,  who  now  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
that  the  action  of  the  French  fleet  at  Foochow  was  tan- 


France  Occupies  Tonquin.  571 

tamount  to  a  declaration  of  open  hostilities.  The  Teng- 
yuen  and  the  Chen- Yuen  steel  armor  plated  ships,  built 
at  Kiel,  and  other  armored  cruisers,  were  added  to  the 
Chinese  fleet,  which  under  protest  from  France  was  now 
largely  officered  by  Germans;  Krupp  guns  were  also 
purchased  and  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
men  under  command  of  two  German  generals  were  armed 
with  the  Mauser  rifle.  While  both  nations  still  refrained 
from  a  formal  declaration  of  war,  France,  "  in  order  to 
starve  the  Chinese  government  into  submission,"  hastened 
to  proclaim  rice  as  "  contraband  of  war,"  a  sweeping  meas- 
ure that  was  not  unqualifiedly  permitted  to  prevail  by 
the  neutral  powers.  By  the  final  recapture  of  Langson 
on  May  5th,  1885,'  and  other  fortresses,  and  after  great 
loss  of  life,  and  many  reverses  owing  to  China's  stub- 
born resistance,  France  finally  established  its  supremacy 
in  Tonquin,  but  at  a  monetary  cost  of  four  hundred  and 
seventy  million  francs.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  executed 
at  Tient-sin,  June  9th,  1885,  between  M.  Patrenoti;e 
and  Li-Hung-Chang.  The  question  of  China's  suze- 
rainty over  Annam  "  being  vaguely  treated,  leaving  the 
sentimental  and  historical  claim  of  China  precisely 
where  it  was,"  granting  no  further  concessions  than 
those  obtained  by  the  Foumier  convention,  but  "  giv- 
ing France  a  free  hand  in  the  establishment  of  her  pro- 
tectorate." 


572  British  Seize  Port  Hamilton. 

"Little  was  learned,"  says  Boulger, "  from  this  cam- 
paign, of  China's  fighting  strength,  for  the  regulars  had 
no  opportunity  of  showing  their  quality."  The  chief 
weakness  seemed  to  rest  in  the  "  incapability  of  the  ofii' 
cers  to  conduct  a  campaign,"  yet  they  still  gave  a  "  very 
good  account  of  themselves  against  one  of  the  greatest 
powers  in  Europe."  Had  the  war  been  fiirther  prose- 
cuted without  outside  interference,  there  seems  but  little 
question  as  to  what  would  have  been  the  final  result, 
"though  China,"  according  to  a  writer  in  Appleton, 
"  in  the  improved  condition  of  her  army  and  coast  de- 
fences, was  in  a  better  position  to  continue  the  struggle, 
notwithstanding  her  impoverished  exchequer,  than  was 
the  French  government,  the  temper  of  the  nation  for- 
bidding the  expenditure  of  the  military  strength  of 
France  in  colonial  adventures." 

While  Russia  was  neglecting  no  opportunity  to  foment 
strife  between  Japan  and  China,  with  alert  regard  for 
her  own  obvious  interest  in  Corea,  a  British  Admiral 
acting  under  instruction  of  the  minister  at  Peking 
occupied — without  definitely  annexing — Port  Hamilton, 
closing  all  the  entrances  to  the  harbor  but  one.  As  all 
the  sea-routes  between  the  Yangtse-Kiang,  and  northern 
parts  of  China  and  treaty  ports  of  Japan,  converge 
her«>  and  the  fort  commanded  the  approach  to  the 
^.ossian  arsenal  at  Vladivostock,  it   seemed  to  possess 


Dismissal  of  Prince  Kung.  573 

certain  strategic  advantages.  The  cost  and  difficulty 
of  its  proper  fortifying  having  been  reported  upon  un- 
favorably, it  was  retroceded  to  China  two  years  later. 

Prince  Kung,  who  had  been  regarded  as  the  most 
influentially  powerful  man  in  China  since  the  treaty  of 
Pekin,  was  summarily  dismissed  from  office  by  decree 
of  the  Empress  Regent,  and  Prince  Chun,  a  man  of 
imperious  will,  became  a  prominent  figure  in  the  new 
Board  of  National  Defence.  The  administration  of 
naval  matters  was  now  centralized  with  Li-Hung-Chang 
and  Marquis  Tseng  in  active  control,  and  Admiral  Lang, 
the  English  officer  who  had  retired  from  the  command 
of  the  navy  sooner  than  take  up  arms  against  France, 
was  re-engaged,  and  five  new  war-ships  purchased. 

The  efibrt  made  by  the  Pope  in  1886  to  establish 
a  permanent  representative  of  the  Vatican  in  China,  was 
unsuccessful.  France  objecting  on  jealous  grounds 
owing  to  China's  previous  refusal  to  permit  French 
protection  of  Chinese  Catholic  converts,  and  threaten- 
ing the  home  separation  of  Church  from  State  if  the 
Pope  persisted.  With  the  slow  delimitation  of  the 
Tonquin  frontier,  the  commercial  concessions  anticipated 
by  France  were  stoutly  resisted  by  China,  who  now  had 
little  fear  of  the  resumption  of  hostilities.  The  barrier 
tax  on  opium,  however,  which  had  been  fixed  by  con- 
vention in  London,  was  finally  removed,  the  cultivation 


574  Educational  Progress. 

of  the  drug  was  formally  legalized  by  imperial  edict, 
and  Tonquin-grown  opium  was  permitted  to  be  imported 
into  Southern  China,  Greater  attention  than  ever  be- 
fore was  now  directed  to  the  development  of  educational 
facilities,  and  various  technical  institutions  received 
the  encouragement  of  the  government,  notably  the 
Tong  Weng  College  in  Peking,  a  state  institution  under 
the  presidency  of  an  American  Scientist,  Professor  W. 
A.  Martin.  Military  and  naval  schools  were  also 
opened  at  Tientsin,  Foochow  and  Shanghai. 

Although  all  but  the  very  lowest  of  the  poorer  classes 
can  read  more  or  less,  not  ten  per  cent,  of  the  women 
can  either  read  or  write,  and  "  higher  education,"  says 
Whitaker,  "consists  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
Chinese  language."  Entirely  wrapt  up  in  themselves 
they  still  continue  to  know  nothing  of  the  affairs  of 
other  nations,  whom  they  yet  speak  of,  although  no 
longer  officially,  as  "  barbarians." 

The  local  railway  at  the  Kaiping  mines  declared  a  div- 
idend, and  at  last,  permission  was  obtained  to  extend  it  to 
Tientsin,  while  another  to  Petang  was  also  undertaken. 

In  1894  the  much  projected  railway  from  Tientsin  to 
Tungchow,  a  point  about  fifteen  miles  from  Peking,  still 
appeared  on  paper  only.  At  the  close  of  the  same  year 
the  railway  from  Tientsin  had  reached  Shan-Hai- 
Kuan — a  distance  of  two  hundred  miles — where  the 


"  China's  Sorrow."  575 

Great  Wall  touches  the  sea.  The  Formosa,  sixty-five 
miles  of  road,  has,  however,  proved  both  successful  and 
profitable.  The  practical  and  foremost  supporter  of 
railway  construction,  and  indeed  of  all  public  improve- 
ments, being  Li-Hung-Chang,  the  viceroy  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  for  a  time  commander-in-chief  of  the  Chinese 
Army  in  the  war  (1894)  with  Japan. 

A  commercial  treaty  with  Portugal  was  concluded, 
and  later  during  that  same  year — 1888 — a  commission 
was  appointed  to  investigate  into  the  condition  of  the 
Chinese  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Borneo,  Singapore 
and  other  places,  several  million  of  whom  were  reported 
to  be  engaged  in  labor  or  business,  and  all  of  whom 
were  subjected,  it  was  claimed,  to  discriminatory  and 
unfair  treatment.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  the 
civilized  world  was  shocked  to  hear  of  the  awful  loss 
of  life  which  accompanied  the  overflowing  of  the  Yel- 
low river,  "China's  Sorrow."  Hundreds  of  villages 
and  walled  cities  were  destroyed.  One  million  six 
hundred  thousand  persons  were  believed  to  have  per- 
ished, and  five  millions  rendered  destitute,  the  majority 
of  whom  subsequently  succumbed  to  inevitable  privation. 
Ten  million  dollars  and  the  labors  of  sixty  thousand 
men  were  fruitlessly  expended  in  an  attempt  to  coax 
the  river  into  its  original  channel.  In  the  province  of 
Yunnan  an  earthquake  destroyed  five  thousand  people. 


576  Antir  Christian  Riois. 

On  February  25th,  1889,  the  Emperor  Kwangsu, 
having  attained  his  eighteenth  year,  married  Yeh-ho- 
no-la,  the  daughter  of  a  Mandarin  General,  and  on 
March  4th  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  the  Em- 
press Regent  relinquishing  the  direction  of  state  affairs 
and  passing  into  retirement.  The  death  of  the  Marquis 
Tseng,  the  diplomatist,  occurred  early  the  following  year, 
and  in  1891  Prince  Chun,  the  newly  appointed  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  National  Defence,  died  most  unex- 
pectedly. The  Emperor  had  barely  succeeded  to  the 
throne  when  he  declared,  unmistakably,  in  favor  of  rail- 
way extension,  and  the  construction  of  the  eight  hundred 
miles  of  road  between  Pekin  and  Hankow  was  sanctioned. 
Serious  anti-Christian  riots  marked  the  early  days  of  his 
reign.  Outbreaks  occurred  in  the  valley  of  the  Yaugtse- 
Kiang  in  May,  and  at  Wahu  and  other  places  which  to- 
gether aggregated  a  population  of  one  hundred  thousand 
Catholics.  An  excuse  for  the  unprovoked  persecution 
being  offered,  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  flagrant  breach  of 
morality  for  the  opposite  sexes  to  sit  together  during  re- 
ligious ser^nces,  and  to  punish  the  transgressors,  missions, 
churches  and  hospitals  were  burned  to  the  ground.  At 
Wusneh,  a  missionary  and  the  customs  ofiicer  were  wan- 
tonly murdered,  and  three  women  were  assaulted;  at 
Ichang  similar  disturbances  and  great  destruction  of  prop- 
erty took  place,  while  even  in  remote  Manchuria,  the 


Right  of  Imperial  Audience.  57'i 

Belgian  priests  were  put  to  the  sword.  The  government 
"admitted  its  inability  to  cope  with  the  uprising,"  which 
was  traced  to  the  machinations  of  the  Kolao  Hui  and 
other  secret  societies,  and  confessed  that  if  the  foreign 
powers  insisted  upon  the  extirpating  of  the  organizations, 
"anarchy  and  disruption  of  the  empire  would  ensue." 
The  naval  forces  of  Great  Britain  and  France  were 
strengthened  and  satisfaction  and  redress  demanded. 

The  right  of  audience  and  personal  reception  of  the 
foreign  ministers  by  the  Emperor,  which,  for  some  years 
had  been  strenuously  insisted  upon  by  the  powers  but  al- 
ways denied,  was  accorded  March  5th,  1885,  owing  to 
the  united  stand  taken  by  the  European  representatives, 
and  the  diplomatic  corps  of  "  Barbarians  "  was  admitted 
in  person — but  in  a  body — to  the  imperial  presence.  In 
return  for  this  concession  China  demanded  the  right,  so 
far  as  Great  Britain  was  concerned,  to  establish  consu- 
lates at  Hong  Kong,  Singapore  and  other  places.  The 
national  obeisance  before  the  sovereign,  and  one  rigidly 
exacted,  is  the  Ko-tow,  consisting  of  nine  prostrations. 
Indeed,  it  is  the  inflexible  rule  that  any  one  official 
meeting  another  who  has  just  left  the  imperial  presence 
must  perform  the  Ko-tow.  In  the  case  of  the  foreign 
ministers — and  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  imperial  prestige — 
the  performance  of  the  Ko-tow,  it  is  almost  unnecessary 
to  add,  was  not  made  obligatory.     While  the  Emperor 

C7 


578  United  States  Minister,  Blair. 

of  China  is  an  absolute  monarch,  his  powers,  as  defined 
by  the  greatest  jurists  of  the  country,  are  identically  the 
same  as  those  awarded  to  "the  Christian  sovereigns  of 
Europe  who  rule  by  right  divine."  The  will  of  the  Em- 
peror of  China  is  held  in  check  by  the  "accepted  code  of 
Confucius,"  which  lays  down  the  governing  rules  of  con- 
duct for  both  sovereign  and  subject,  and  at  all  times  sub- 
ject to  the  unsparing  criticism  of  the  Board  of  Censors. 
"An  educated  public  opinion,"  writes  Boulger,  "acts,  as 
history  clearly  shows,  as  an  excellent  brake  on  the 
impetuosity  of  any  man  entrusted  with  irresponsible 
power,"  a  power  in  this  instance  no  greater  however, 
than  that  of  Czar  or  Sultan. 

Upon  the  appointment  of  Henry  W.  Blair  as  United 
States  Minister  to  Peking,  strong  objections  were  raised 
by  the  Chinese  government  on  the  grounds  that  the  newly 
appointed  minister  had  advocated  in  Congress  the  ex- 
clusion of  Chinese  from  the  United  States,  and  helped  to 
secure  the  passage  of  legislation  hostile  to  Chinese  immi- 
gration. The  Emperor  refused  to  see  Mr.  Blair,  and 
President  Harrison  declined  to  recall  his  representative. 
Following  upon  this  incident  and  in  order,  perhaps,  to 
accentuate  his  displeasure,  the  Emperor  relaxed  ceremony 
so  far  as  to  receive  Mr.  O'Conor,  the  British  representa- 
tive, at  the  imperial  residence  of  "peace  and  plenty" 
within  the  "  Forbidden  City,"  a  concession  hitherto  never 


Trade  and  Finance.  679 

extended,  and  a  mark  of  favor  which  became  "  a  standing 
grievance  with  the  other  ministers  at  Peking." 

Early  in  the  present  decade  the  construction  of  tele- 
graph lines  was  pushed  with  vigor,  and  connection  with 
the  Russian  trans-continental  system  was  affected  by 
means  of  which  messages  can  now  be  sent  all  over  west- 
ern Asia  and  Europe  cheaper  than  by  cable.  In  the 
spring  of  1894  the  masterful  floods  of  the  great  Yangtse- 
Kiang  again  overflowed  its  banks,  and  the  loss  of  life 
on  the  adjacent  low  lands  was  enormous. 

The  value  of  the  foreign  and  domestic  trade  of  China 
is  hard  to  obtain.  In  1875  it  was  estimated  at  about 
two  hundred  and  five  million  dollars,  in  1893  the  total 
trade,  conducted  by  only  seventeen  of  the  twenty  treaty 
ports,  alone  amounted  to  about  one  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  million  nine  hundred  and  ninety-seven  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty  dollars.  Imports  and  exports, 
one  hundred  and  fourteen  million  eight  hundred  and  nine 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  thirty  dollars.  As  regards 
revenue  and  expenditure  no  trustworthy  statements  exist. 
In  1875  the  revenue  was  supposed  to  have  amounted  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  million  dollars.  In  1874 
the  first  foreign  loan  was  contracted.  It  was  for  the  sum 
of  six  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  pounds  obtained  at  ninety-five  per 
cent,  and  bearing  eight  per  cent,  interest,  secured  by  the 


580  A   Corrupt  Civil  Service. 

custom's  duties.  Of  the  three  foreign  loans  in  all  there 
was  outstanding  in  January,  1892,  only  three  million 
seven  hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  pounds,  while  the 
internal  debt  does  not  exceed  eight  million  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  pounds.  From  this  it  will  be  seen 
that  China's  national  debt  is  surprisingly  inconsiderable. 
Unlike  Japan,  she  has  borrowed  liitle. 

Of  the  revenue,  most  of  that  which  is  raised  in  the 
Provinces  is  applied,  apparently,  to  local  purposes,  but 
a  small  proportion  ever  reaching  Peking  for  the  use  of 
the  central  government.  Of  the  revenue  at  the  present 
day  which  is  placed  by  good  authority  at  a  possible 
four  hundred  million  dollars,  Peking  is  said  to  receive 
one-third.  Out  of  this  the  Emperor  has  to  pay  court  ad- 
ministration, the  expenses  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  and 
contingencies,  the  remainder  is  squandered  with  the  as- 
sistance of  a  corrupt  government  and  a  dishonest  civil  serv- 
ice. Some  twenty  thousand  officials  comprise  this  latter 
body,  whose  names  appear  according  to  seniority  in  an 
ofi!icial  Red  Book  published  periodically.  While  the  or- 
ganization of  the  bureaus  is  pronounced  admirable,  "  cor- 
ruption is-all  pervading."  The  great  and  "  crying  evil 
of  China's  civil  ser\uce  are  the  hordes  of  expectant  ofii- 
cials,  who,  awaiting  their  turn  by  right  of  success  at 
examinations,  for  appointments  promised,  but  which 
never  come,  pass  their  time  in  levying  blackmail  on  the 


The  Suzerainty  of  the  Corea.  581 

unsophisticated  masses."  Over  ninety  thousand  duly- 
qualified  young  men  are  said  to  present  themselves  yearly 
for  final  examination,  which  would  entitle  them  to  oflSce, 
in  a  service  which  at  the  most  liberal  estimate  does  not 
contain  more  than  twenty-two  thousand  paid  members. 
The  quasi  dependent  condition  of  Corea,  and  the  un- 
settled state  of  its  affairs,  measurably  owing  to  China's 
standing  claim  of  suzerainty,  and  which,  for  years  had 
been  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment and  that  of  the  Island  Kingdom  of  Japan,  at  last 
became  the  excuse  for  open  rupture  between  the  two 
countries.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the 
present  Avar,  Corea  was  considered  to  be  doubtfully  sub- 
ject to  a  somewhat  indefinite  suzerainty  on  the  part  of 
China,  acknowledged  by  the  sending  of  the  customary 
annual  tribute-missions  t(f  Peking.  Japan,  however, 
claimed,  by  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin  of  1885,  to  have  se- 
cured an  admission  from  China  of  "equality  of  rights  in 
Corea."  In  1876  Corea  had,  as  already  related,  invited 
foreign  intercourse,  and  the  cities  of  Chemulpo,  Fusan  and 
Gensan,  were,  by  the  king's  orders,  "  acting,"  as  was 
then  announced,  "under  the  guidance  of  Chinese  encour- 
agement," thrown  open  as  treaty  ports  to  the  outside 
trading  world.  From  this  time  forward  Japan  had  sub- 
stantial and  increasing  interests  in  Corea.  But  the  aims 
of  the  two  powers  were  radically  different,  Japan  desiring 


682  (hrea  Attacks  Japanese  Invaders. 

but  China  being  unwilling  to  introduce  necessary  reforms 
into  the  peninsula.  Progress  versus  retrogression  were 
swaying  in  the  balance. 

Upon  the  22nd  of  June,  1894,  in  pursuance  of  the  ex- 
pressed policy  of  protecting  its  subjects  and  promoting 
its  interests,  Japan  landed  large  bodies  of  troops  in  Corea. 
Four  thousand  soldiers  were  stationed  at  Chemulpo  and 
fifteen  thousand  at  Seoul,  the  capital.  On  July  25th, 
the  Corean  army — instigated,  it  is  alleged,  by  the  Chinese 
government — made  an  unprovoked  attack  upon  the  Jap- 
anese force  at  Seoul,  the  battle  resulting  in  the  defeat  of 
the  Coreans  and  the  flight  of  Li  Hsi,  the  king.  The 
kingdom  of  Corea,  which  measures  some  six  hundred 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  miles  from  east  to  west,  contains  an  area  estimated 
at  upwards  of  eighty  thousand  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation "variously  "  estimated  at  between  six  and  eighteen 
million,  but  reckoned  according  to  the  "last  government 
census"  at  ten  million  five  hundred  and  twenty-nine  thou- 
sand. Seoul,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  two  hundred 
thousand. 

After  the  lapse  of  a  few  weeks,  when  affairs  seemed  to 
be  approaching  a  point  *of  pacific  settlement  between 
Japan  and  Corea,  China  insisted  that  the  Japanese 
should  withdraw  their  fleet,  and  that  failing  to  do  so, 
they  threatened  to  advance  upon  the  Japanese  army  of 


Japan  and  China  Declare  War.  583 

occupation  by  land  and  sea.  Japan  was  given  until  the 
20th  of  July  for  purposes  of  reflection.  The  respite  was 
not  necessary,  her  mind  was  already  made  up,  and  in- 
terpreting the  message  as  an  ultimatum,  without  further 
ceremony,  when  she  saw  the  Chinese  war  ships  advanc- 
ing upon  her  fleet  on  July  27th  opened  fire,  destroyed 
one  of  the  opposing  vessels  and  dispersed  the  enemy, 
sinking  at  the  same  time  a  transport  flying  the  British 
flag.  On  the  1st  of  August  an  apology  was  tendered  the 
British  for  sinking  the  transport  which  was  fired  upon 
owing  to  a  misunderstanding,  and  a  formal  declaration 
of  war  was  declared  against  China.  Upon  the  follow- 
ing day  the  Emperor  of  China  issued  a  manifesto,  ac- 
cepting the  invitation  to  fight,  but  placing  the  entire 
blame  and  responsibility  on  Japan  for  percipitating  the 
conflict. 

The  governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  now  declared  their  neutrality  and  Corea  its 
independence  of  China,  later  entering  into  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Japan,  to  be  terminated,  however,  as 
soon  as  a  treaty  of  peace  should  be  concluded  between 
China  and  Japan.  In  October,  the  seat  of  war  was 
transferred  to  the  Chinese  mainland,  Japan  assuming 
the  aggressive,  and  landing  forty  thousand  troops  on 
the  coast  of  Manchuria,  threatening  the  safety  of 
Moukden  the  ancient   capital   and  twin   seat  of  gov- 


584  Japanese  Victories. 

ernment  with  Peking.  At  Wie  Ju  the  opposing  forces 
came  into  collision  and  the  Chinese  army  was  routed, 
the  Mikados  fleet  meanwhile  having  obtained  command 
of  the  strategic  advantages  offered  by  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 
On  November  4th,  Andong  and  Fong-wong,  outworks 
of  Port  Arthur,  succumbed  to  the  superior  gunnery 
of  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese  soldiers  being  accused  of 
cowardice,  six  general  officers  deserting  their  posts, 
followed  by  fifteen  thousand  of  the  rank  and  file  of 
Chinese  chivalry,  while  the  conquering  Japanese  con- 
tinued their  victorious  march  into  the  interior. 

The  Chinese  army  at  this  time  represented  on  paper 
one  million  soldiers,  for  the  most  part  equipped  with 
arms  out  of  date,  and  consisting  principally  of  untrained 
men.  This  numerically  immense  force  was  comprised 
of  seventy  thousand  Manchus,  eighty  thousand  Mongols 
and  some  seven  hundred  thousand  Chinese  or  Green 
Flags.  Li-Hung-Chang's  model  army  corps,  known 
as  the  "Black  Flag,"  and  numbering  fifty  thousand, 
was  utilized  for  garrisoning  such  forts  as  Port  Arthur 
and  Taku.  Peking  was  garrisoned  by  the  Manchus. 
Of  the  two  hundred  thousand  Green  Flag  soldiers 
at  Moukden  about  one-third  was  armed  with  Win- 
chester rifles.  The  maintenance  of  this  poorly  organ- 
ized and  ill-equipped  army  costs  over  one  hundred 
million  dollars  annually. 


China's  Naval  Strength.  _  585 

With  the  navy,  as  with  the  army  and  the  revenue, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  between  that  which 
is  strictly  imperial  and  the  vessels  that  are  the  property 
of  or  subject  to  the  control  of  the  viceroys  of  the  mari- 
time provinces.  Whitaker  reports  that  numerous 
officials — such  as  the  Salt  Commissioners  and  others — 
maintain  armed  gunboats  to  assist  them  in  the  collection 
of  duties  on  certain  articles  over  which  they  have  a 
monopoly.  What,  however,  is  recognized  as  the  navy 
proper  is  the  fleet  which  cruises  around  Cheefoo,  Tientsin 
and  Port  Arthur,  and  the  southern  fleet  which  acknowl- 
edges Shanghai  or  Foochow  as  its  naval  headquarters. 
According  to  the  most  recent  returns  the  Chinese  navy 
comprised  the  following  vessels. 

The  Chinese  northern  squadron  in  1893  consisted  of 
four  barbette  armorclads,  one  of  nearly  ten  thousand 
tons,  one  turret  ship,  five  deck  protected  cruisers  of 
two  thousand  two  hundred  tons,  four  torpedo  cruisers, 
twenty-three  first  class  torpedo  boats,  and  eleven  gun- 
boats. At  Foochow  nine  cruisers,  three  gunboats,  and 
nine  dispatch  boats.  Of  the  Shanghai  "Armada,"  an 
armorclad,  a  gunboat  and  six  floating  batteries,  an- 
swered to  the  roll  call.  The  Canton  flotilla  was  com- 
prised of  thirteen  gunboats.  During  the  same  year  the 
services  of  Admiral  Lang,  who  was  for  a  long  period 
engaged  in  organizing   the   naval  force,  and  those  of 


586  Japan's  Army  and  Navy. 

Gen.  Von  Haneken,*  a  German  military  engineer,  were 
dispensed  with,  and  Chinamen  were  appointed  in  their 
place.  Japan's  movable,  offensive  and  defensive  fight- 
ing capabilities  consisted  in  1891  of  a  total  military  en- 
Tollment  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-two  thousand  six 
hundred  and  twenty,  with  three  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  sixty-nine  under  conscription, 
twenty  thousand  of  which  force  was  kept  in  active  service. 
The  navy  department  consisted  of  thirteen  thousand 
and  ninety-two  officers  and  sailors  on  active  service. 
The  aggregate  tonnage  of  the  war  ships  amounted  to 
sixty-one  thousand  tons  displacement,  representing  seven- 
ty-six thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  horse-power, 
the  vessels  themselves  mounting  three  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-four cannon  of  modem  make,  manned  by  five  thou- 
sand seven  hundred  and  twenty-six  officers  and  "blue 

jackets." 

China,  now  thoroughly  alarmed  at  the  successes  of  the 
courageous  islanders,  was  disposed  to  negotiate  for  terms 
of  peace.  On  the  21st  of  the  same  month  Port  Arthur 
was  captured,  and  the  Chinese  Dictator,  Prince  Kung, 
calmly  avowed  the  impotence  of  the  Chinese  army  to 
withstand  the  attacks  of  the  Japanese  troops,  and  pro- 
claimed China's    complete  willingness   to    abdicate  its 

claims  to  Corean  sovereignty,  and  pay  a  reasonable  war 

*  Reappointed  in  1894,  at  the  time  of  the  declaration  of  war  with 
Japan. 


China'a  Humiliation.  587 

indemnity.  Japan  expressed  its  readiness  to  negotiate 
if  China  would  accede  to  its  demand,  namely,  two  hun- 
dred million  dollars  as  compensation  and  if  it  would 
formally  sue  for  peace.  These  terms  China  unequivo- 
cally refused.  By  December,  the  amount  of  indemnity 
demanded  was  increased  to  four  hundred  million  dollars, 
and  in  addition  to  a  national  suing  for  peace,  the  cession 
of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Japanese  army  was  also 
insisted  upon. 

While  the  more  broad-minded  of  the  Japanese  were 
ready  to  listen  to  any  reasonable  negotiations  for  peace, 
believing  that  the  punishment  and  the  humiliation  of 
China  was  complete,  the  military  and  the  masses  were 
too  intoxicated  with  the  successes  of  the  troops  to  call 
upon  the  government  to  desist. 

But  King  Kwang-su  and  his  counselors  though  de- 
spairing yet  remained  stubborn,  and  the  Japanese  army 
under  Field  Marshal  Oyama  commenced  its  triumphant 
overland  march,  while  its  successes  by  sea  were  no  less  phe- 
nomenal, and  Asiatic  history  continued  to  be  manufac- 
tured at  an  unprecedent  rate.  The  prowess  of  Japanese 
arms,  however,  at  the  taking  of  Port  Arthur,  was  sadly 
shorn  of  military  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  civilized 
world  by  the  atrocities  reported  to  have  been  inflicted 
upon  the  conquered  and  defenseless  inhabitants.  This 
inexcusable  relapse    into  savage  barbarism   has  been 


588  China  Sues  for  Peace. 

endeavored  to  be  explained  away  by  the  fact  that  the  Jap- 
anese soldiers  only  resorted  to  butchery  as  a  retaliatory 
measure,  when  inspired  by  the  sight  of  the  indescribable 
indignities  that  had  been  imposed  upon  their  own  sol- 
diers, and  upon  the  Japanese  prisoners  who  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Then  the  officers  lost  all 
control  and  the  men  lost  all  restraint. 

With  the  advent  of  the  year  1895  Japan  had  three 
completely  equipped  army  corps  in  the  field,  and  ex- 
pressed its  intention  of  withholding  all  terms  of  peace 
until  its  troops  should  have  occupied  Peking.  In  Janu- 
ary, China  at  last  awaking  to  the  gravity  of  the  accumu- 
lating disasters,  which  threatened  the  autonomy  of  the 
empire,  dispatched  a  peace  commission  to  the  court  of 
Japan.  These  envoys,  who  reached  Hiroshima  on  the 
30th,  were  accompanied  by  the  Hon.  John  W.  Foster, 
ex-secretary  of  state  of  the  United  States,  not  represent- 
ing the  government,  but  in  the  capacity  of  private  ad- 
viser, being  selected — and  esjiecially  well- fitted — for  the 
responsibilities  of  the  position,  owing  to  his  experience  as 
a  diplomatist  and  his  wide  knowledge  of  Chinese  affairs. 
Upon  the  manner  of  the  reception  of  these  envoys  by  the 
Japanese  government,  and  the  disposition  of  the  momen- 
tous issues  at  stake,  the  future  integrity  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  will  largely  depend.*     The  commission  was  re- 

♦  See^  note,  page  590. 


Japan^s  Extraoi-dinary  Achievements.  589 

ported  to  have  been  vested  with  plenipotentiary  powers 
and  authority  to  arrange  for  absolute  surrender  if  neces- 
sary, and  to  stipulate  for  an  immediate  armistice. 

While  the  Japanese,  during  the  present  campaign, 
have  exhibited  superior  fighting  qualities,  and  in  the 
handling  of  their  war  ships  have  evidenced  a  better 
knowledge  of  naval  tactics  and  the  art  of  modern  war- 
fare than  has  been  displayed  by  the  Chinese,  the  contest 
between  the  two  nations — though  demonstrating  these 
facts  and  leaving  no  doubt  as  to  the  ultimate  issue  of  the 
war — has  not  been  an  uninterrupted  round  of  Japanese 
successes.  The  disparity  of  the  total  losses  up  to  the 
close  of  1894,  as  summarized  by  a  Japanese  paper,  and 
after  allowing  a  liberal  discount  for  partiality,  establishes 
the  unmistakable  fact,  however,  that  while  upon  the  one 
side  there  has  been  "a  display  of  Japanese  skill,  general- 
ship, discipline,  dash  and  courage,  upon  the  other  there 
has  been  a  display  of  Chinese  ignorance,  conceit,  lack  of 
tactics,  discipline,  cowardice  and  panic." 

While  there  is  no  suspicion  of  doubt  as  to  the  outcome 
of  this  extraordinary  struggle  for  supremacy,  between  a 
nation  whose  population  numbers  three  hundred  million 
and  another  of  thirty  million,  there  is  still  less  doubt  as 
to  the  incalculable  moral  value  of  the  conflict  as  regards 
the  lessons  taught  in  the  interest  of  commercial  progress 
and  civilization. 


690  Present  Conditions. 

"  There  is  no  country  in  the  world,"  writes  Douglas, 
"  where  practice  and  profession  are  more  widely  separated 
than  in  China.  The  Empire  is  preeminently  one  of 
make  believe.  From  the  Emperor  to  the  meanest  of  his 
subjects  a  system  of  high  sounding  pretension  to  lofty 
principles  of  morality  holds  sway,  while  the  life  of  the 
nation  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  these  assumptions." 

It  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  out  of  the  present 
"seeming  evil"  good  may  be  educed,  and  that  the  bitter 
blow  to  Chinese  blind  belief  in  her  own  omnipotence  and 
superiority  to  the  "barbarians  of  the  outer  world,"  as 
administered  to  her  by  Japan,  may  lead  to  the  complete 
unlocking  of  her  trade  gates,  and  her  moral  and  thorough 
rehabilitation. 


Note.— The  commission  referred  to  on  page  588  was  recalled,  the 
Japanese  refusing  to  treat  with  the  representatives  delegated  by 
China  upon  the  ground  that  they  were  not  clothed  with  the  neces- 
sary plenipotentiary  powers.  As  the  result,  however,  of  further 
negotiations  Li-Hung-Chang  was  subsequently  appointed  Envoy 
Extraordinary,  and  vested  with  complete  authority  to  conclude 
terms  of  peace,  he  arrived  at  Semonisaki,  March  19,  1895,  with  an 
Imposing  retinue,  and  accompanied  by  the  Hon.  John  Foster.  Un- 
ofiScial  statements  as  to  the  conditions  Japan  is  likely  to  impose, 
place  the  war  indemnity  at  $250,000,000,  the  cession  of  the  Island  of 
Formosa,  and  the  military  occupation  of  the  already  invested  terri- 
tory on  the  mainland.  Whether  the  European  powers,  however, 
notably  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  will  consent  to  the  dominant 
occupation  of  any  portion  of  the  mainland,  which  would  seemingly 
constitute  a  possibility  of  Japanese  supremacy  in  Eastern  Asia,  yet 
remains  to  be  seen. 


Central  Administration.  591 

There  are  a  few  facts  of  material  value,  only  briefly 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapters,  but  of  present  ad- 
ditional interest,  in  view  of  the  invasion  of  China  by 
Japan,  an  enumeration  of  which  should  be  of  use  in  the 
fiiture  study  of  China's  governmental  "machine,"  and 
the  physical  characteristics  of  her  territory. 

Under  the  Emperor  the  central  administration  con- 
sists of  what  may  be  termed  two  Inner  Cabinets  and  a 
number  of  Subsidiary  Boards,  controlling  separate  de- 
partments of  state.  These  two  cabinets  are  the  Grand 
Secretariat  or  Nin-Koh,  and  the  General  Council  or 
Kiun-Ki-Chu.  The  former  consists  of  four  Grand  Sec- 
retaries— two  of  whom  are  Manchus  and  two  Chinese — 
and  two  assistants.  The  Senior  Grand  Secretary  had,, 
up  to  the  time  of  Li-Hung-Chang's  appointment,  always 
been  a  Manchu,  he  being  the  first  Chinese  accorded  this, 
preeminent  office.  The  staff  numbers  about  two  hun- 
dred. 

The  Nin-Koh  is  in  closest  touch  with  the  Emperor. 
To  him  it  submits  all  papers,  and  from  him  it  receives 
all  instructions  and  edicts.  It  is  also  the  custodian  of 
the  twenty-five  imperial  seals,  necessary  for  the  various 
documents  issued  by  the  several  departments. 

The  General  Council  consists  of  the  heads  of  the  de- 
partments and  some  others,  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Em- 
peror for  consultative  purposes.     It  frames  the  imperial 


592  The  Chinese  Empire. 

edicts  for  signature  and  meets  in  daily  conclave.  It 
hands  over  all  papers  passed  upon,  to  the  Peking  Gazette 
for  publication,  which  is  the  oldest  current  official  paper 
in  the  world,  it  having  been  in  existence  continuously 
for  over  one  thousand  years.  Extracts  from  this  are 
made  by  native  literati,  who  make  a  living  by  selling  the 
same  to  those  of  their  countrymen  who  cannot  afford  to 
buy  a  copy  of  the  complete  paper.  The  General  Coun- 
cil has  offices  in  the  interior  of  the  "  Forbidden  Palace," 
and  transacts  its  business  between  the  hours  of  five  and 
six  A.  M. 

Under  these  two  councils  are  six  administrative 
Boards  viz:  the  (1)  Civil  Office,  (2)  Board  of  Kevenue, 
(3)  Rites,  (4)  War,  (5)  Punishment,  (6)  Public 
Works.  Each  of  these  Boards  has  two  presidents  and 
two  vice-presidents. 

The  Chinese  Empire  may  be  divided  into  China 
"within,"  and  China  "beyond  the  Wall" — China  within 
or  Chinese  proper,  with  it*  eighteen  provinces,  is  known 
more  or  less  to  everyone. 

Beyond  the  Great  Wall  the.  country  is  girdled  by 
mountains.  Northward  at  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  by  the 
Yabloni,  westward  in  a  semi-circle  by  the  ranges  of 
the  Saian,  the  Altai,  Tian-Shan,  Tsungling  and  Hima- 
layas, which  unite  in  constituting  a  fairly  continuous 
ftontier-line  of  six  thousand  miles  to  Yunnan,  the  south- 


Resources  and  Agriculture.  593 

west  province  of  China  proper.*  This  vast  territory 
winch  includes  Manchuria,  Mongolia  and  Dzungaria  in 
the  north,  and  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Tibet  in  the 
west,  together  with  China  proper  and  her  independent 
dependencies,  covers  an  area  of  four  million  four  hundred 
and  sixty-eight  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  square 
miles.  From  its  mountain  ranges  flow  some  of  the  larg- 
est rivers  in  the  world  which  with  their  tributaries  fur- 
nish an  unrivalled  internal  water  communication.  Enor- 
mous deserts  and  lofty  table-lands  constitute  its  highland 
features,  on  the  skirts  of  the  mountains  alone  are  there 
any  arable  lands,  and  these  present  their  gentle  and 
inviting  slopes  on  the  north  side  of  the  mountains  only. 
Over  two-thirds  of  the  land  in  China  at  the  present 
day — 1895 — is  cultivated  by  tenants  on  the  metayer,  or 
one-half  profit  system.  Nine-tenths  of  the  population  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  principal  crops  consist  of 
rice,  which  is  the  staple  food,  and  sugar,  which  is  the 
chief  article  of  export,  and  sweet  potatoes,  pulse,  garden 
vegetables,  peanuts,  indigo,  sesamum,  ginger,  grass-cloth 
plant,  tobacco  and  wheat.  Each  acre  of  ground  contrib- 
utes, on  an  average,  about  one  dollar  and  a  half  an- 
nually to  the  imperial  treasury.  The  owner  of  one 
acre  is  regarded  as  having  a  competence ;  the  owner  of 
ten  acres  is  considered  wealthy.     Few  own  a»  *nuch  as 

♦Landsell's  Central  Asia. 
38 


594  China's  Mysterious  Future. 

two  hundred  acres,  while  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  an 
acre  is  the  average  holding.  Farm  lands  are  worth  from 
three  hundred  dollars  to  eight  hundred  dollars  an  acre, 
and  rice  fields  are  quoted  at  six  hundred  dollars.  The 
chief  cost  of  cultivating  land  is  its  fertilizing,  crushed 
oil-less  beans  being  used,  at  an  average  expenditure  of 
twenty-four  dollars  to  an  acre.  No  buttermilk  or  cheese 
is  either  used  or  raised,  and  the  farm  animals  consist  of 
a  water  buffalo  or  a  zebu.  One  acre  of  land  will  pro- 
duce, on  an  average,  three  thousand  six  hundred  and 
forty-eight  pounds  of  clean  rice.  The  cost  of  food  aver- 
ages about  one  dollar  per  month  per  head,  and  five  dol- 
lars will  keep  an  ordinary  man  in  clothing,  and  one  acre 
of  land  will  sustain  six  persons.  Adele  Fielde  cites 
the  case  of  a  man  who  inherited  a  farm  of  two  acres. 
Himself,  wife,  son,  daughter-in-law,  four  daughters  and 
two  grandchildren  lived  on  the  product.  He  managed 
to  pay  three  dollars  and  sixty  cents  taxes  a  year,  sold 
twenty  dollars  worth  of  rice,  and  had  two  hundred  dol- 
lars invested  drawing  eighteen  per  cent,  interest.  At 
one-half  the  rate  of  production,  but  at  the  same  rate  of 
consumption,  the  arable  area  in  the  state  of  New  York 
would  support  the  whole  of  the  present  population  of  the 
United  States. 

If  a  proper  conception  of  China's  possibilities  appears 
to  be  a  complex  task,  or  a  matter  of  mysticism,  there  can 


China's  Trade  Influence.  696 

be  little  doubt  that  she  presents  a  vast  field  of  profitable 
opportunity  within  her  boundaries.  As  wholly  unde- 
veloped as  she  is  little  understood,  it  is  manifest  that  she 
only  awaits  the  introduction  of  western  methods  to  mate- 
rially influence  the  policy  of  all  the  nations  and  the  entire 
current  of  the  world's  trade. 


INDEX. 


Aborigines,    the,  musical   240. 

Accadian  Babylonian  equivalents,  34. 

Accadian  parallelisms,  497,  334. 

Acupuncture,  practice  of,  236. 

Agriculture,  boards  of,  202  ;  esteem  for, 
348,  350;  great  festival  of,  348;  re- 
spectability of,  200,  •. 

Alphabet,  the,  lacking  in  Chinese,  146, 

477-. 

Amencans,  the,  in  China,  49. 

Amherst,  Lord,  in  China,  55. 

Anatomy,  ignorance  of,  237. 

Ancestors.honors  10,239,330;  sacrifices 
to  the.  376 :  worship  of,  81. 

Ancestral  hall,  the,  328. 

Ancestral  tombs,  worship  at,  355,  365. 

Annals,  Spring  and  Autumn,  506. 

Annam,  settlements  in,  18. 

Annihilation,  theory  of,  455. 

Anniversary  ceremonies,  424. 

Application  versus  inspiration,  289. 

Architecture,  Chinese,  255. 

Art,  literature  of,  537. 

Artificiality  in  Chinese  art,  287. 

Asceticism  and  charity  wearisome,  452. 

Assyrian  parallelisms,  474. 

Astrology  and  matrimony,  119. 

Astronomy  studied,  51  :  and  writing, 
19;  early  know>ledge  of,  530;  a  favor- 
ite study,  535. 

Asylums  for  lunatics  unknown,  237. 

Autumn,  beginning  of  the,  363. 

Babies,  cries  and  movements  of,  138. 

Baby,  ceremony  of  washing,  130. 

Babylonian  astronomy  and  Chinese,  20  ; 
parallelisms,  334. 

Ballet  of  the  beasts,  373. 

Bandoline,  use  of,  188,  263. 

Banishment,  punishment  by,  107. 

Barbers,  trade  of,  197. 

Bastinado,  the,  loi,  102. 

Beans,  health-giving,  distributed,  345. 

Beggars,  harvest  of,  340. 

Beheading,  process  of,  104. 

Bell,  the  Great,  at  Canton,  26,  246  ;  the 
Great  at  Peking,  245. 

Bells,  uses  of,  244. 

Bill  of  fare,  a  Chinese,  169. 

Biography,  Chinese,  529. 

Birds,  fortune-telling  by  means  of,  399. 

Birth,  importance  of  the  hour  of,  138. 

Birth,  portents  of,  137. 

Birthday,  the  first,  140. 

Blood,  circulation  of  the,  231. 

Boat,  travelling  by,  294. 


Boat-people,  numbers  of,  200. 

Boat-races,  362. 

Bodhidharma  arrives  from  India,  451; 
gains  a  reputation  for  spirituality,  452. 

Bodv,  the  i.uman,  elements  of,  232. 

Book  of  Odes  (She  King),  36. 

Book,  the  oldest,  498. 

Books,  categories  of  Chinese,  518,  544. 

Books  burned,  42,  512  ;  quality  of,  496  ; 
search  for,  517,  519. 

Bow  and  arrow,  use  of,  162. 

Bribery  in  civil  cases,  100  ;  in  examina- 
tions, 156. 

Bridal  gifts,  74,  119. 

Bride,  reception  of  the  by  the  groom, 
125  ;  selection  of  a,  71. 

Bridges,  the  handsome,  of  old  times, 
310. 

Brigands,  murder  charged  to,  85. 

British,  the,  in  China,  49. 

Brown,  Prof.  Francis,  translator,  25. 

Bruce,  Sir  Frederick,  60,  65. 

Buddha,  ceremony  of  bathing,  359; 
images  of  in  mussels,  t  78 ;  repudi- 
ated, 460  ;  the  sect  of,  428. 

Buddhism,  introduction  of,  446,  463. 

Buddhist  temples,  277. 

Buildings,  no  ancient  in  China,  255. 

Burial, custom  of  ancient  in  China,  410. 

Burial  of  the  living,  411;  omitted  a 
calamity,  115;  rites,  importance  of, 
116. 

Burials  not  permitted  in  cities,  357. 

Buttons,  use  of  as  marks  of  distinction, 
.85. 

Calendar,  the  Hea,  499. 

Calling,  choice  of  a,  148. 

Calls  on  New  Year's  Day,  337,  340. 

Canals  used  for  travel,  294. 

Canque,  punishment  by  the,  112. 

Canton,  fall  of,  60;  opened  to  trade, 
49  ;  prisons  in,  iii. 

Capture,  marriage  by,  1 14. 

Cards,  ensragement,  120. 

Carpets  and  stoves,  262. 

Carriages  destitute  of  springs,  292. 

Caspian  sea,  origin  of  the  Chinese  on, 
18. 

Catalogues,  love  for  makini;,  530. 

Cats,  honors  to,  377. 

Cattle,  freeing  of  the,  372. 

Catty,  defined,  222. 

Ceilings  and  roofs,  261. 

Celibacy  in  women  honored  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  322. 


596 


Index. 


597 


Censors,  imiierial,  99. 
Cereals,  cultivation  of,  204. 
Ceremonial    in    China,   88 ;    rules   of, 

510. 
Ceremonies,   a   professor   of,   329 ;    at 
'  marriage,    1 16  ;    prescriptions  of  the 

Board  of,  351. 
Ceremony  of  washing  the  baby,  139. 
Civil    service,  examinations,    19,    149 ; 

corruption  of  the,  93,  96. 
Chaldea,  the  source  of  Chinese  astron- 
omy, 535. 
Chaldean  year,  beginning  of  the,  24. 
Changes,  Book  of,  497. 
Characters,  combinations  of,  480 
Characters  of  Chinese  writing,  465. 
Che  Hwang-te,  dynasty  of,  41,  44. 
Chemistry,  ignorance  of,  237. 
Children  completely  subject  to  parents, 

142. 
Children,  life  of  in  boats,  301. 
Children,  omens  regarding,  137. 
Children,  selling,  141. 
Chinese  desire  peace  with  England,  57  ; 

not  artistic,  283;    race,  origin  of,  17, 

18;    temperament    phlegmatic,    102, 

236. 
Chopsticks,  use  of,  167. 
!  Chow,  Duke  of,  509. 
.Chow  djjnasty,  the,  30. 
Chow,  rights  of  the  sovereign  of,  470. 
Chow,  sceptre  of,  waning,  41. 
Christianity,  an  idea  of  obtained,  59. 
Christians  massacred,  6^,  68. 
Chronology,  Chinese,   indefinite,   381  ; 

favorite  with  Chinese  writers,  530. 
Chrj'santhemums,    legend    concerning, 

371- 
Ch'un  Ts'ew,  the,  (Spring  and  Autumn 

Annals)  506. 
Clairvoyance  and  mesmerism,  409. 
Classification,  Chinese,  535. 
Classics,  the  five,  147. 
Cleanliness,  love  of  the  silkworm  for, 

221. 
Clothes  depended    upon    for  warmth, 

262. 
Clothes,  the  first  of  an  infant,  139. 
Cock-crowing,  disturbance  of,  304. 
Coffins,  ceremonies  regarding,  415,  4t8. 
Comets,  superstitions  about,  387. 
Comfort  unknown  in  Chinese  homes, 

2*12. 

Compilation,  activity  in,  494. 

Complexion,  water  that  will  make  clear, 
364- 

Complexions,  artificial,  189. 

Compliments,  use  of  in   conversation, 
490. 

Concubinage,  128. 

Concubines,  the  imperial,  75. 
■  Confucius  approves  the  Five  King,  509, 
510  ;  as  a  historian,  507  ;  attempts  to 
explain  ancient  literature,  497  ;  edits 
the  book  of  historv,  502  :  example  of 
in  historical  writing,  525  ;  house  of 
roilled  down,  2^6;  lofty  aims  of,  435  ; 
.isisjudgment  ui,  508,  509. 


Confucius  on  music,  253  ;  on  filial  piety, 
143;  on  women,  127:  political  creed 
of,  40;  state  of  letters  on  death  of, 
514;  a  story  of,  39;  views  concerning 
man's  nature,  534 

Confucianism  defined,  430 ;  the  religion 
of  scholars,  428,  463. 

Confucian  temples,  276. 

Conjugal  fidelity,  emblems  of,  120. 

Conservatism,  Chinese,  478. 

Conservatism  in  letters,  41^6,  546. 

Consolidation  of  the  empire,  26. 

Conversation,  self-depreciation  in,  489. 

Constellations,  notions  regarding  the, 
536. 

Coohe,  dress  of  a,  180. 

Corn,  Indian,  production  of ,  205. 

Corpse,the,of  Bodhidharroa  speaks,  453. 

Cosmetics,  use  of,  188,  341. 

Courage,  seat  of,  231. 

Couriers,  speed  of  the  official,  311. 

Couvarde,  custom  of,  140. 

Cremation,  practice  of,  427. 

Criminals,  inhumanity  to,  loi  ;  punish- 
ment of,  103. 

Crimes,  discrimination  of  the  laws  re- 
garding, I  12. 

Cycle,  the  full  Chinese,  52. 

Cycles,  the  sexagenary,  382. 

Cyclone,  the.  of  1874,  300. 

Daughters,  small  good  of,  142. 

Day,  the  night  before  the  shortest,  373. 

Days,  lucky  and  unlucky,  394. 

Dialects,  the  Chinese,  36,  479. 

Diet  among  the  wealthy,  171. 

Dinner,  the  bridal,  126;  a  cottage,  168; 
menu,  a,  172  ;  singing  at  a,  171. 

Dinner-party,  a  Chinese,  171. 

Disease,  antidote  against,  367,  372. 

Diseases,  classes  of  in  China,  234. 

Disturbances,  suppression  of,  90. 

Divination  by  the  tortoise,  403. 

Divining  the  future,  modes  of,  395. 

Divorce,  grounds  of,  128. 

Death,  approach  of,  232. 

Death  by  degrees,  punishment  of,  103. 

Death,  euphemisms  for,  413. 

Death,  notices  of,  416. 

Death  preferred  to  marriage,  129. 

Death-bed  ceremonies,  413. 

Degeneracy,  an  age  of,  37,  38. 

Degrees,  scholarly,  151,  157. 

Deities,  some  Chinese,  28. 

Deity,  belief  in  a  personal,  429. 

Demons,  ceremony  of  exorcising,  378. 

Demons  raised  by  the  willow,  358. 

Depreciation  cf  self  in  conversation,  489. 

De  Quincey's  Flight  of  a  Tartar  Tribe, 
19. 

Dew,  potency  of  the,  366. 

Dragon-boat  festival,  the,  360. 

Drawing,  the  art  of,  280. 

Drums,  sorts  of,  243. 

Doctors,  classes  of,  233  ;  their  fees,  235. 

Doctrine  and  diet,  167. 

Dugs'  flesh,  diet  of,  169 ;  how  prepared 
for  food,  170  ;  strength  derived  Ijcm 
the  flesh  of,  347. 


598 


Index. 


Dojrwood,  an  antidote  against  disease, 
372- 

Drama,  the,  in  China,  $$i. 

Dress  always  loose,  i8o. 

Drowning  girls,  142. 

Duck's  eggs,  day  for  pickling,  376. 

Dynasties,  the  Chinese,  44 ;  literary 
traits  of  the  different,  523. 

Dynasty,  natural  limit  of  a,  58. 

Early  to  bed,  144. 

Earth,  notions  regarding  the,  536. 

East  India  Company,  52. 

Eclipses,  superstitions  regarding,  388. 

Education  a  stereotyped  system  iollowed 
for  centuries,  147;  of  the  young,  137, 
145.. 

Egyptian  parallelisms,  474. 

Elgin,  Lord,  minister,  60. 

Encyclopaedia,  an,  edited,  S'- 

Encyclopaedias,  age  of,  538 

Engagement,  how  to  break  an,  119. 

Engagements,  horoscopes  of,  119. 

English  in  China,  55. 

Empire,  establishment  of  the,  471. 

Empiricism,  medical,  230. 

Emperor,  the  Chinese,  the"  father  "of 
his  people,  87. 

Epicureanism  in  Taouism,  443. 

Essays,  canonical  laws  of  composition, 
153- 

Essay-wnting,  the  art  of,  149 ;  profici- 
ency in,  545. 

Estates,  transmission  of,  201. 

Etiquette  before  marriage,  119;  official, 
88. 

Examinations,  classes  excluded  from, 
i6i  ;  military,  162. 

Extortion,  official,  94. 

Eyebrows,  treatment  of,  189. 

Eyes,  superstitions  regarding,  401. 

Faces  and  feet  among  Chinese  women, 
188. 

Faces,  fortunes  in,  400. 

Facts,  disconnected,  gathered  with  dili- 
gence, 528. 

Family  life,  113. 

Family,  pride  of,  327. 

Fancy  wanting  in  Chinese  writings,  553. 

Fanners  freeing  their  cattle,  372. 

Fasting,  ceremonies  of  the  Hall  of,  374. 

Father.debts  of  the,  143  ;  power  of,  141. 

Feast,  the,  of  graduation,  155. 

February,  rejoicings  in,  335. 

Feet,  Chinese,  small,  195. 

Feet  and  faces,  in  China,  188. 

Feet,  the,  of  the  women,  189,  190. 

Feudal  system,  disappearance  of,  470. 

Feudalism  abolished,  42. 

Fiddles  and  guitars,  250. 

Filial  piety,  i43- 

Filial  piety  the  cornerstone  of  Confu- 
cianism, 434. 

"  First-foot,"  omen  of  the,  338. 

Fish,  diet,  a,  175  ;  marketed  alive,  178. 

Fishing  in  China,  175;  with  cormo- 
rants, 176. 

Five  King,  the,  approved  by  Confucius, 
510. 


Flogging  prisoners,  101. 

Flood,  the  "great,"  28. 

Flower,  how  to  paint  a,  287. 

Food  and  dress,  164. 

Food,    nourishing,    taken    at    certaia 

times,  347. 
Foos,  palaces,  266. 
Formality  in  essay- writing,  546. 
Formosa,  rebellion  at,  56. 
Fortune-telling,  395. 
Fortunes  made  in  office,  95. 
Frogs  as  an  article  of  diet,  172. 
Funeral  bake-meats,  357,  423. 
Funeral  rites,  410. 
Funds,  misappropriation  of,  92. 
Fuh-he,  invents  music,  239. 
F'ung  people,  the,  26. 
Furniture,  Chinese,  262,  263. 
Future  tense,  how  indicated,  492. 
Game,  production  of,  179. 
Games  at  dinner,  171. 
Gardens  in  cities,  268. 
Gauzes  produced  at  Canton,  225. 
Generalization   not  known  to   Chinese 

writers,  529. 
Geography  in  Chinese  literature,  528. 
Ghosts,  feeding  the  hungry,  365. 
Ginseng  soup,  value  of  in  diet,  347. 
Girls  of  little  value,  142. 
Girls,  place  for  drowning,  142.        _ 
God  of  literature,  the,  444. 
God,  the,  of  Confucius  not  a  personal 

deity,  434. 
Gods  of  the  kitchen,  380. 
Gongs,  sorts  of,  247. 
Gordon,  "  Chinese,"  65  ;   honored   in 

China,  315. 
Government,  the  art  of,  533  ;    Chinese, 

a  patriarchal  despotism,  87;  officers 

of,  89. 
Government,  oppressive,  fiercer  than  a 

tiger,  40. 
Grace  wanting  in  the  literature,  495. 
Grammar,  poverty  in,  484. 
Graves,  importance  of  the  sites  of,  418. 
Graveyards,   Chinese,    always    in    the 

open  country,  357. 
Great  Seal  characters,  36. 
Gunpowder,  antiquity  of,  163. 
Hades,  the  spirits  in,  356. 
Hair,  fortunes  in,  401. 
Hair,  modes  of  wearing,  188. 
Hair-dressing,  263. 
Hair  restorer,  a,  169. 
Hall,  the  ancestral,  328. 
Hats,  materials  for,  185. 
Hea,  the   dynasty  of,  29 ;   calendar  of 

the,  499. 
Head,  shaving  the,  195. 
Heads  uncovered,  183. 
Heaven,   the,  of    Buddhism,  454;  the 

impersonal  of  Confucius,  434. 
Heen-fung,  emperor,  death  of,  67. 
Hexagrams  in  the  book    of   changes, 

Hieroglyphic  wnting,  469,  472. 
Hieroglyphics,  Assyrian,  474. 
Highways,  the  good,  of  old  times,  yx^ 


Index. 


Histories,  the  imperial,  526. 

H  istory  the  most  important  branch  of 
literature,  525  :  book  of,  25,  502  ;  on 
the  back  of  a  tortoise,  468 ;  work  iu, 
503- 
.Hoang-ho  river,  the,  iS. 

Home,  rule  in  the,  126. 

Honan,  the  cradle  of  drawing,  280. 

Honan,  home  of  the  Kwei  people,  466. 

Honan,  people  of,  466. 

Honors,  Chinese,  not  hereditary,  312; 
posthumous,}  [4  ;  sold  in  open  market, 
317:  withdrawn,  319. 

Horseflesh,  diet  of,  169. 

Horse  races  at  Peking,  363. 

Hour,  the,  unknown  m  China,  385. 

Household,  the  imperial,  75. 

Households  in  the  ancestral  hjll,  329. 

Houses  in  art,  287;  pleasant  inside, 
258;  tent-like  form  of,  256. 

Humility  assumed  by  the  emperor,  491. 

Hung  Sewtsuen,  a  leader  of  the  discon- 
tented, 59. 

Hunting  season,  the  opening  of  the, 
368. 

Hwang-te,  emperor,  19 ;  burns  books, 
512;  honors  Confucius  with  a  temple, 
429;  introduces  surnames,  324,  326; 
studies  medicine,  229 ;  musical  efforts 
of,  241. 

Ignorance,  a  time  of,  43. 

Imagination,  absence  of,  494,  554 ;  lack- 
ing in  Chinese  writings,  553;  first 
tales  of,  520. 

Imitation,  skill  in,  289. 

Immolation  at  funerals,  411. 

Immortality,  the  elixir  of,  443,  459. 

Imprisonment,  a  strange,  447. 

Incense  offered  to  a  dead  body,  417. 

India,  an  embassy  to,  448. 

Industry  misdirected,  524. 

Infanticide  in  China,  127;  legally  a 
crime,  141. 

Infants'  first  clothes,  139. 

Inflection,  absence  of,  488. 

Inhumanity  to  prisoners,  loi. 

Inns  on  post-roads,  311;  not  desirable 
lodging-places,  303. 

Insanity,  repressive  treatment  of,  237 

Insects,  fire-crackers  an  antidote  for, 
363. 

Interment  of  the  dead,  .120. 

Irrigation,  modes  of,  206,  208. 

Jade  sceptre,  the,  73. 

Jesuits  at  Peking,  51. 

Joss-stick,  a,  74. 

Jungs,  the,  26. 

Junks,  names  of,  298 ;  sea-going  de- 
scribed, 29;; ;  travel  by,  295. 

Justice,  administration  of,  100 ;  little 
known,  92. 

Kalmucks,  flight  of  the,  19. 

Kang,  a,  defined,  262 ;  the,  at  the  inns, 
303- 

K'ang,  rule  of,  31. 

K'ang-he,  long  reign  of,  49,  50,  51,  384. 

K'een-lung,  52,  55. 

Kidnappers,  punishment  of,  105. 


Kieh  kwei,  a  monster  of  iniquity,  30. 

K'in,  the,  described,  249. 

Kin  Tartars,  home  of  the,  45. 

Kitchen  gods,  festival  of,  380. 

Kites,  tiymg  of,  J71. 

Knowledge,  categories  of  Chinese,  544. 

Ko-t'ow,  ceremony  of,  46,  343,  350, 
39',  423. 

Ku-jin,  degree  of,  152,  155. 

Kwang-se,  a  claimant  of  the  throne,  58. 

Kwang-su,  accession  of,  82. 

Kwei  people,  the,  25. 

Kwei  shoo,  the,  26. 

Kwei  writing^  the,  465,  469. 

Land  tenure  in  China,  200. 

Language,  the  Chinese,  464 ;  origin  of, 
482  ;  refinement  in  the  spoken,  487 ; 
uncertainty  in  using,  493  ;  written, 
470. 

Lanterns,  feast  of  the,  341. 

Laou-tsze,  account  of,  439. 

Law,  practice  of  unnecessary,  148. 

Lawlessness,  spread  of,  32. 

Legge's  misjudgment  of  Confucius,  508. 

Legerdemain,  373. 

Legislation  one-sided,  128. 

Le  ke,  the  Book  of  Rites,  509. 

Lenormant,  Frangois,  "  Les  Origines 
de  rhistoire,  25. 

Letters,  Chinese  fondness  for,  32. 

Licentiousness,  a  period  of,  37. 

Life,  a  fresh  lease  of,  338;  future, 
notions  of,  418. 

Ling  che,  the,  103. 

Linguistic  forms,  473. 

Literature,  Chinese,  494 ;  complete  col- 
lection of  Chinese,  543,  545 ;  decad- 
ence of,  539  ;  divisions  of,  523  ;  the 
god  of,  444;  golden  age  of,  538; 
growth  of,  520;  improvement  of,  514, 
517:  obliged  to  begin  anew,  512; 
ongin  of,  496;  revival  of,  551  ;  slow 
growth  of,  512 ;  and  science  fostered, 

.50- 

Literary  degrees,  honors  of,  156;  ex- 
ercises delighted  in,  342. 

Lotus  flowers  and  birds,  454. 

Lovers'  presents,  119. 

Lucky  days,  394. 

Lunatic,  execution  of  a,  104. 

Lute,  the,  of  twenty-five  strings,  239. 

Lvnching,  105. 

Macartney,  lord,  52. 

Magical  arts  and  Taouism,  445. 

Magistrates,  punishment  of,  gi. 

Mahayana  system,  the,  brought  to 
China,  451. 

Mahomedanism  in  China,  463. 

Man,  destiny  of  in  his  own  hand,  434  ; 
nature  of,  theories  of,  534 ;  original 
nature  of,  according  to  Confucnus, 
430- 

Manchoo  rulers  of  China,  45. 

Manchoos,  peace  with  the,  46. 

Manes,  provisions  for,  the,  356,  365 ; 
sacrifices  to  the,  361. 

Manes,  the,  supposed  to  wander,  115. 

Mandarin,  an  honest,  96,  98. 


600 


Index. 


Mandarimite,  admission  to,  162. 

Mandarins,  dishonest,  punished  by  the 
people, 99;  dressof,  184;  notallowed 
to  hold  office  in  their  native  provinces, 
93  :  not  punished  for  crimes,  96. 

Mandarins'  wives,  dress  of,  187. 

Margary,  expedition  of  to  Yunnan,  82  ; 
death  of,  86. 

Married  life,  dark  picture  of,  135. 

Marriage,  a  complex,  71-75  ;  a  leap  in 
the  dark,  127  ;  at  the  basis  of  Chinese 
institutions,  113;  by  capture,  114; 
cards  and  red  silk,  121 ;  ceremonies, 
114,  116;  choice  of  the  day  for,  122; 
encouraged  bjr  legislation,  115;  en- 
durable tr>  Chinese,  136 ;  institution 
of,  1 13  ;  of  those  of  the  same  "  sing," 
325;  omens  regarding,337  ;  universal, 

"5- 
.Massacre,  the  T  sien-tsm,  67. 
Matrimony  abjured  by  Miss  Wang,  320 ; 

professors  of,  72. 
Maxims,  the  sixteen  Sacred,  of  K'ang 

he,  49, 438. 
Meat,  disinclination  to,  167. 
Mechanical  nature  of  Chinese  art,  284, 

288  ;  traits  of  Chinese  art,  537. 
Mechanics,  ingenuity  in,  202. 
Medicine  in  China,  229;  literature  of, 

537  ;  practice  of  empirical,  148. 
Mediocrity  of  Chinese  literature,  495. 
Mediums,  spiritualistic,  407. 
Meen  dynasty,  effort  to  restore  the,  58. 
Memory  unduly  exercised  in  Chinese 

schools,  148. 
Mencius  on  the  decay  of  the  world,  fo6 ; 

remarks  on  a  p)eriod  of  Chinese  his- 
tory, 38  ;  teachings  of,  511. 
Mercury,  early  knowledge  of  the  value 

of,  238. 
Mesopotamian  culture   compared  with 

Chinese,  25. 
Metaphysical  heresies,  452. 
Mid-lent  Sunday,  359. 
Milk  of  cows  not  used,  180. 
Milk  name,  the,  331. 
Missionaries,  hostility  to,  67,  68,  69. 
MongoKa,  home  of  the  Ottoman  Turks, 

Mongolian  words,  introduction  of,  481. 

Monogamy  practiced,  116. 

Month,  an  intercalary,  20. 

Months,  the  Chinese,  24.  333,  334,  345. 

Moon,  the,  associated  with  the  months, 

345  ;  festival  of  the,  367  ;  eclipses  of, 

388. 
Morality,  Chinese,  504:  European  and 

Chinese,  508;  laxness  in,  100. 
Mother  of  all  things,  the,  442. 
Mothering  Sunday,  359. 
Mourning,  ceremonies  of,  416. 
Mouth,  the,  as  indicating  character,  402 
Muh,  penal  code  of,  32. 
Mules,  the  use  of,  294. 
Museum,  the  British,  Chinese  works  in 

the,  544. 
Music,  invention  of.  229,  239. 
Nak-kon-ti,  chief  of  the  Susians,  19. 


Name,  the  "milk,"  331. 

Names,  in  China,  324;    confusion  of, 

332. 
Nanking,  fall  of,  66. 
Napier,  Lord,  in  China,  56. 
Nature,  the  mysteries  of  explainea  by 

the  Taouists,  445. 
Navigation  dangerous,  299. 
Needle,  use  of  in  medical  practice,  236. 
New  Year's    Day,   the    Chinese,   335, 

337.339,343.344- 
New  Year  s  Eve,  celebration  of,  336. 
Nirvdna  and  taou,  441. 
NirvSna  not  a  material  paradise,  455. 
Nobles,  bad  rule  of,  470. 
Nobility,  titles  of,  313. 
Nothingness,  pure,  of  Buddhism,  455. 
Novel,  the  best  Chinese,  556. 
Novels,  traits  of  Chinese,  554. 
Numerals,  Chinese,  488. 
Nunneries  in  China,  129. 
Obedience  of  children,  144. 
Odes,  antiquity  of  some,  547. 
Odes,  Book  of,  36,  501. 
Offerings  to  the  god  of  agriculture,  350. 
Office-holders    generally    corrupt,    93 ; 

released  from  parental  control,  145. 
Office-holding  a  favorite  career,  148. 
Omens  regarding  birth,  137  :   regarding 

matrimony,  337  ;   regarding  going  to 

.school,  145. 
Opinion,  public,  imperfectly  expressed. 

92. 
Opium  burned,  57  ;  question,  the,  56. 
Opium-smoking,  punishment  for,  92. 
Oppression,  protection  against,  99. 
Ostracism  of  river-jjeople,  301. 
Ottoman  Turks,  original  home  of  the, 

19. 
Pagodas,  design  of,  278. 
Pagoda,  the  most  magnificent,  279. 
Paint,  laws  about,  263. 
Painting,  literature  of,  537. 
Palaces,  the,  of  Peking,  266,  267. 
Palmistry,  practice  of,  409. 
Panthay  rebels,  the,  70. 
Parallelism  in  Chinese  verse,  55c. 
Parallelisms  between  Indian  and  Chi- 
nese religions,  446.      (See  .'\ccadian 

and  Babylonian.) 
Pardons,  chance  award  of,  106. 
Parents,  respect  for,  143. 
Parkes,  Sir  Harry  in  a  Chinese  prison, 

107. 
Past  tense,  how  indicated,  492. 
Patience   and   good-humor  in   crowds, 

265. 
Pause,  the  cassural,  in  Chinese  vetse, 

55°- 
Peach-trees,  influence  of,  379. 
Peacock's  feather,  reward  of  the,  317. 
Peking,  burning  of,  513:  surrender  of, 

61. 
Penates,  honors  to  the,  377. 
Pencils,  College  of  the  Forest  of,  158. 
Pencil-writing  by  spirits,  406. 
People,  the,  called  "black  heads,"  517. 
Perspective  not  understood,  283. 


Index. 


GOl 


Philology,  ignorance  of,  472. 
Philosophical  speculation,  456. 
Philosophy  of  China,  character  of,  533. 
Phonetic  decay,  result  of,  480,  484. 
Phonetic  writing,  469,  473. 
Physiognomy,  Chinese,  403. 
Physiology  unknown  in  China,  230. 
Piety,   filial,   143 ;    the  cornerstone  of 

Confucianism,  434;    of  Miss  Wang, 

320. 
Pig-tail,  the,  195,  196. 
Pisciculture,  178. 
Planets,  how  watched,  392  ;   recognized 

by  the  Chinese,  20. 
Plays,  Chinese,  traits  of,  553. 
Plowing,  sacerdotal,  352. 
Ploughs,  the  Cliiiiese,  202  ;  the  imperial 

yellow,  350. 
Poetry,  perfunctorj',  551. 
Politics,  creed  of  Confucius  regard'"", 

40  ;  music  in,  250. 
Portents  based  on  the  appearance  01  me 

planets,  393. 
Portraits  not  successful,  289. 
Portuguese,  the,  in  China,  49 
Pottinger,  Sir  Henry,  58. 
Poultry,  production  of,  179. 
Poetry  before  prose  in  China,  5^7. 
Prefect,  an  honest,  98. 
Presents,  birthday,  141. 
Priesthood,  novitiates  admitted  to  the, 

360. 
Prisons  in  Canton,  iii  ;  horrors  of  the 

Chinese,  107. 
Prize  packages,  342. 
Professions,  the  liberal,  unknown,  48. 
Progress,  defici°ncy  in,  478. 
Property,  transfer  of,  202. 
Prostration,  ceremony  of,  343  ;  before 

royalty,  80. 
Progress,  lack  of  in  letters,  496. 
Provinces,  government  of,  89. 
PMnctiiation,    absence    of  in    Chinese 

books,  493. 
Punishment  inflicted  on  criminals,  103. 
Purity,  official,  little  known,  92. 
Quacks  practicing  medicine,  232. 
Queue,  the,  of  men,  195 
Railways,  probable  introduction  of,  306 
Razors,  the  Chinese,  198  ;  use  of  the, 

•95- 
Rats,  an  article  of  diet,  169. 
Rebellions  in  China,  56. 
Reception,  an  imperial,  76. 
Reed  instruments  of  music,  243. 
Relics,  worship  of,  450. 
Religion  in  China,  ^2^:  music  in,  246; 

no  stages  of  growth  found  in,  504. 
Remedies  used  in  China,  233. 
Responsibility  of  officials,  91. 
Rhyme  in  Chinese  verse,  549. 
Rice,  cultivation  of,  204,  205. 
Rice,  the  staff  ot  life,  164. 
Riddles  at  the  bridal  feast,  126. 
Riding,  mules  used  in,  293. 
Rising,  early,  144. 
Rites,  the  Board  of,  509. 
Rites,  the  Book  of,  75,  509;  quoted,  144. 


Ritual  for  funerals,  413. 

Roads,  the  good  oid,309 ;  macadamized, 
266,  291 

Roofs  and  ceilings,  261. 

Rulers,  incompetent,  40. 

Rules,  dependence  upon,  268;  cut-and- 
dned  of  essay-writing,  546;  of  Chi- 
nese art,  284,  288,  537 ;  regarding 
temples,  275. 

Sacrifices  at  the  tomb  necessary,  n6. 

Sails  on  wheelbarrows,  304. 

Sakyamuni,  saintship  of,  379  ;  teachings 
01,  446,  459- 

Salaries,  official,  low,  93. 

Han  fun,  the  "  three  records,"  499. 

Satin,  production  of,  225. 

Sayce,  Prof.,  compares  Babylonian  and 
Chinese  astronomy,  23. 

Schaal,  Adam,  visits  China,  46. 

Scenery  in  the  Chinese  theatre,  554. 

School  life,  145. 

School  books,  146. 

Science,  no  traces  of  growth  in,  504: 
and  literature  supported,  50. 

Scholars,  the  sect  of,  428. 

Seal  characters  (large),  the,  468,  470, 
471 ;  (small)  the,  471. 

Seals,  ceremony  of  closing  the,  379. 

Sedan-chairs,  261;,  291. 

Seasons,  the  Chinese,  346;  means  of 
calculating  the,  536  ;  pervading  prin- 
ciples of  the,  139. 

Sentences,  immutability  of  forms  of, 
500. 

Sexagenary  cycle,  early  knowledge  of, 
382,  530. 

Shang  dynasty,  the,  29. 

Shansi,  province  of  settled,  18. 

Shang-te,  sacrifices  in  honor  of,  375  ; 
who  was  he?  27,  28. 

Shawls  of  crape,  production  of,  225. 

She  Chow,  system  of  writing  of,  36. 

She  king,  the  "  Book  of  Odes,'"  501. 

Shoo  kitig,  the  "  Book  of  History," 
502. 

Shops,  264. 

Signs  for  words,  475. 

Silkworms,  care  of,  220;  cultivation  of, 
218  ;  weaving,  22.'. 

Silken  cord,  punishment  of  the,  104. 

Silkworm,  the  wild,  22s. 

Sing,  the  earliest.  J25. 

Singing  girls  at  a  dinner,  171. 

Sins  of  omission  or  commission,  danger 
from,  421. 

Sleeves,  uses  of,  183. 

Soap  not  used  in  shaving,  198. 

Sod,  turning  of  the  first,  349. 

Souls,  transmigration  of,  167 

Sovereign  and  people,  relations  be- 
tween, 88. 

Spints,  necessity  of  propitiating,  366 ; 
provisiiin  for  the  comfort  of,  356. 

Spiritualism,  Chinese,  404. 

Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,  506. 

Spring,  great  festival  of,  348. 

Stage  accessories  in  China,  554. 

Stars,  science  of  the,  504.' 


002 


Index. 


Starvation  in  prison,  108, 

State,  Council  of,  89. 

Stones,  musical,  243. 

Strangulation,  execution  by,  104. 

Streets  and  roads,  264,  266,  292  ;  dreary 
aspect  of,  257. 

Stringed  instruments  of  music,  243,  248. 

Study,  honor  obtained  for,  320. 

Success  the  standard  of  skill  in  medi- 
cine, 233. 

Succession,  the  royal,  81. 

Suicide  of  wives,  130. 

Suicides,  state,  formality  of,  134. 

Summer,  beginning  of,  363. 

Sumptuary  laws,  263. 

Sun,  eclipses  of  the,  38?,  391 ;  notions 
regarding  the,  536. 

Sung  dynasty,  state  of  letters  during, 
S3S. 

Superstitions,  386 ;  of  taouism,  443  ;  of 
the  willow,  35,  358;  regarding  the 
chrysanthemum,  371 ;  regarding  mar- 
riage, 337;  concerning  the  silkworm, 
221;  tyranny  of,  460. 

Surnames  introduced,  324;  pride  in, 
327- 

Susian,  outbreak  at,  18. 

Swaddling-clothes,  essential,  138. 

Swallows  w^elcome,  359. 

Swords,  use  of,  163. 

Syllabaries,  a  collection  of,  497. 

Symbolism,  fondness  for,  340;  of  the 
planets,  393. 

Tael,  defined,  228. 

Taheo  (Great  Learning),  510. 

Tai-ping  dynasty,  the,  59;  rebellion, 
the,  59,  62,  66. 

Taku  forts,  the,  taken,  61. 

Tanka,  the,  of  the  Chinese  rivers,  300. 

Taouism,  the  religion  of,  428 ;  defined, 
438. 

Taou-kwang,  emperor,  56. 

Tartars,  protection  against,  43. 

Te,  derivation  of,  28. 

Tea,  how  to  drink  it,  217. 

Tea,  varieties  of,  215. 

Tea-plant,  the,  210. 

Teks,  the,  26. 

Temperance  in  China,  217. 

Temple,  the  most  magnificent  of  China, 
436. 

Temples  prominent  in  cities,  272. 

Terrestrial  paradise  a,  459. 

Thanksgiving-day,  377. 

Theatre,  the  Chniese,  554. 

Threshing,  process  of,  209. 

Threshold,  lifting  the  bride  over,  125. 

Tibet  added  to  the  empire,  49. 

T'ien-tsin,  massacre,  67,  70. 

Tigers,  honors  to,  377. 

Taou  defined,  441,  463. 

Tombs,  rules  regarding,  424. 

Tombs,  worship  at  the  ancestral,  355, 
365. 

Tombstones,  regulations  regarding,  426. 

Tones,  value  of  in  Chinese,  485. 

Topography,  books  on,  527. 

Tortures,  loi,  102. 


Trade  a  favorite  calHne,  148. 
Tradition  the  basis   of  much  Chinese 

history,  527. 
Travel,  by  boats,  302. 
Travelling,  in  China,  291  ;  the  art  of, 

293- 
Treachery  during  the  Taiping  rebellion, 

65. 
Treaty  with  England,  60,  62. 
Triad  Society,  the,  56. 
Trumpet,  the,  in  China,  244. 
Tsing  explains  self-cultivation,as  taught 

by  Confucius,  433. 
Ts'm,  state  of,  conquered,  41. 
T'ung-che,  accession  of,  67 ;  marriage 

of,  71 ;  death  of,  81. 
Turks,  home  of  the,  19. 
Typhoons,  danger  from,  299,  300. 
Uncertainty  in  the  language,  493. 
Uniformity  in  Chinese  dwelling,  272. 
Vaccination,  introduction  of,  235. 
Verb,  result  of  war.t  of  inflection  of,  492. 
Verse,  traits  of.  550. 
Verse-making,  laws  of,  548. 
Virtue    always    sustained    in    Chinese 

novels,  555  ;  its  own  reward,  434. 
.Vocables,  richness  of  the  language  in, 

479- 
Wade,  Sir  Thomas,  86. 
Walking  among  women,  791. 
Wall,  the  Great,  built,  43. 
Walls,  the,  of  cities,  271. 
Wang,  Miss,  publicly  honored,  320. 
War,  backwardness  of  the  Chinese  in, 

163. 
War,  declared  by  England,  60. 
War  predictions  of,  388. 
Warmth  obtained  by  adding  garments, 

262. 
Water  for  the  complexion,  364  ;  never 

drunk  cold,  168. 
Water-ways,  books  on  the,  529. 
Wax,  white  insect,  226. 
We,  the  imperial,  491. 
Wealth  gathered  in  office,  95. 
Weather,  influence  of  the  changes  of, 

363  ;  prayer  for  seasonable,  79. 
West,  the  Pure  Land  of  the,  453,  455. 
Wheel-traffic  unknown,  264 
Wheelbarrow,  travel  by,  J04. 
Wheelbarrows  unknown  in  agriculture, 

203. 
Widow,  suicide  of  a,  131. 
Widows,  may  not  remarry,  129. 
Willow,   superstition    connected  with, 

358- 
Willow-trees,  influence  of  over  demons, 

379- 
Wine  and  chrysanthemums,  371. 
Winnowing,  process  of,  209. 
Winter  solstice,  feast  of  the,  373. 
Wives,  devotion  of,  130. 
Woman  a  beautiful,  causes  war,  290. 
Women,  day  for  boring  their  ears,  379; 

disabilities   of,  129;    dress    of,    187; 

dress  of,  263;    feasting   of  th^  340; 

government  by,  67 ;  honors  assigned 

tOi  3'9f  320;   "  inferiority "  of,  128: 


Supplementary  Index. 


603 


Women,  lives  of,  127  ;  longevity  of, 
323  ;  marketable  commodities,  128  ; 
sacrifices  of,  364. 

Woo  Wang,  prince  of  Chow,  30. 

Words,  collecting,  32. 

Word^,  compound,  481  ;  signs  for  cer- 
tain classes,  474. 

Worship,  ancestral,  81 ;  official  of 
Confucius,  436 

Writing,  a  system  of,  361  ;  and  astron- 
omy, 19 ;  and  drawing,  288  ;  no 
clear  account  of  its  origin,  464  ;  tra- 
ditions of  the  origin  of,  467. 

Yamun,  an  official  residence,  148. 


Yaou,  emperor,  26. 

Year,  the  Chinese,  333,  345. 

Yellow,  fondness  for,  261. 

Yellow  Jacket,  order  of  the,  315. 

Yellow  river,  the,  bursts  its  bounds, 

Yih  ktt.^,  the  oldest  book,  498. 
Young,  education  of,  137. 
Youth,  perpetual,  sought,  444. 
Yu,  the  great,  leadsthe  waters  of  the 

flood  back,  29. 
Yung-ching,  emperor,  52. 
Yunnan,    Mahomedanism     in,    463 ; 

murder  in,  82  ;  rebellion  in,  70. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  INDEX. 


American,  Consul  assaulted,  588  ;  uni- 
versity, 568,  574. 

Agriculture,  progress  and  process  of, 
593- 

Annam,  surrender  to  France,  of,  569. 

Army,  strength  of,  584  ;  defeat  of,  by 
Japan,  587. 

Bacninh,  capture  of,  569. 

Blair,  United  States  minister,  578. 

China,  "Beyond  the  Wall,"  592  ;  de- 
clares war  against  Japan,  583. 

"  China's  Sorrow,"  575. 

Civil  Service  examinations,  559  ;  cor- 
ruption of,  580. 

Chun,  Prince,  appointed  dictator,  573. 

Chung-How,  envoy  to  St.  Petersburg, 
563- 

Commerce,  579. 

Commercial  panic,  568. 

Corea,  troubles  in,  581-582;  landing 
of  Japanese  troops,  581  ;  declares 
its  independence. 

Cotton  nulls,  steam,  565. 

Education,  development  of,  574. 

Empress  RegentTsi-An,  death  of,  566. 

England,  neutrality  of,  583  ;  transport 
sunk,  583. 

Envoys  proceed  to  Japan,  588-590. 

E.xpenditures,  579-580. 

Foster,  Peace  Commissioner,  Hon. 
Jno.  W.,  588-590. 

Germany,  naval  officers,  571. 

Gill,  exploits  of  Captain,  561. 

Gordon,  Colonel,  574. 

Grant,  visit  of  General  U.  S.,  566. 

Great  Wall,  Russian  freedom  of,  563. 


Hainan,  revolt  on  Island  of,  566. 

Hainoi,  fall  of,  567. 

Japan    lands    troops   in  Corea,   581; 

declares  war   against  China,  583 ; 

lands  troops  in    Manchuria,   583 ; 

army  and  navy  of,  586. 
Kashgar,  capture  of,  56a. 
Kashgaria,  war  in,  559. 
Kolao  Hui,  secret  society  01,  577. 
Ko-tow,  observance  of  the,  577. 
Kuldja,  retrocession  of,  563. 
Kung,  dismissal  of  Prince,  573. 
Kwangsu    (Emperor),    marriage  of, 

576  ;  accession  of,  576. 
Lang,  Admiral,  573-585- 
Lhassa.  564. 

Li-Hung-Chang,  558-571.  573-575- 
Loans,  579. 

Lottery,  Great  Weising,  558. 
Manchuria,  Japanese  troops  land  in, 

583. 
Manas,  surrender  of,  560;  slanghter 

of  Tungans  at,  560. 
Min  Forts,  French  bombard  the,  570. 
Moukden,  threatened  byjapan,  583. 
Navy,  585. 

O'Conor,  British  minister,  578. 
Oyama,  field  marshal,  587. 
Opium,  trade  in,  565-574. 
Parkes,  Sir  Harry,  570. 
Peace  envoys  proceed  tojapan,  588- 

590. 
Port  Arthur,  Japanese  take,  584;  al- 
leged Japanese  atrocities,  587. 
Port   Hamilton,   English    occupation 

of,  572. 


604 


Supplementary  Index. 


Portugal,  treaty  with,  575. 
Railroads,  construction  of.  560-574. 
Red  Book,  the  official,  580. 
Resources,  593. 
Revenue,  579-580. 
Right  of  Audience,  577. 
Shantung,  famine  in,  561. 
Seoul,  capture  of,  by  Japanese,  581. 
Sungaria,  invasion  of,  561. 
Tibet.  Grand  Lama  of,  564. 
Tientsin,  treaty  of,  56o>-s8i. 
Treaty  Ports,  560,  581. 


Tseng  Marquis,  563,  573,  576. 

Tso-Tsang-Tang.  victories  of,  561. 

Turkestan,  conquests  in,  562. 

United  States,  trade  with,  565  :  ap- 
pointment as  arbitrator  of.  Presi- 
dent of,  569. 

Von  Haneken,  General,  585. 

Yakoob  Beg,  559,  561. 

Yang-tse-Kiang,  treaty,  ports  on  the, 
561. 

Yellow  River,  floods  on.  560. 

Yunnan,  earthquake  in,  575. 


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